Knowledge and bias

Today in history and science there is a lot of different bias that can be seen through everyday life. The question that I am trying to answer is if we can obtain knowledge despite bias and selection in history and science. There are three mall types of bias that we can see In today's world, firstly there Is cultural bias which has to do with blabs relating to culture, religion and personal practices and then there Is confirmation bias which is when someone is trying to prove a point and ignores all evidence which old contradict him.Both these types of bias can be found in history, however also in science there is the second type of bias when a scientist has an hypothesis and does experiments, selecting data which proves his idea. Despite what people say about selection, it is proven that selection helps us cut down all the knowledge that we obtained, otherwise there would be too much to analyze and Interpret at the same time. If all the huge amounts of knowledge were to be used there would be too much and it would defer us from the truth. Body:Both history and science since the beginning of time have contributed to help us a lot to develop both socially, economically and politically. History has taught us about the past and what must not be repeated in the future. Science on the other hand has managed to explain the way the world works and show us new technologies that have helped us for many years. However in both Science and history there will still always be someone that will contradict another person's point of view. It is for these many reasons that bias and selection are constantly present in our world today.In story there Is bias through deferent interpretations of documents and sources and In Science there Is selection when a scientist follows one specific method and doesn't History today, as I said before, is often based on cultural bias which can mostly be seen through political, religious and moral views that may contradict each other. When Historian s write new interpretations on history they do not all have the same cultural background or the same sources, so in general they all have different points of views that will obviously not be agreed on.In science we may question some experiments as we do not know if the scientist used the best possible method nor do we know if he used the best materials and variables to conduct his experiment and find the best possible result in the end. History is the study of evidence we have of the past and it is based on human affairs. However history has always been passed on from generation to generation by documents and recording.But when we think about this idea we may feel that the information that is passed from generation to generation cannot be totally reliable as we do not know for certain if the truth is ally stated in the documents or if the person who wrote the account Just wanted to censor the information to hide personal facts about certain events. History without bias and selection is hard to find as sources are already based on a certain point of view and we can only observe what that particular person believes.It is for this reason that so many books have been written in history as if there was no bias or selection we could Just write one big book with the same point of view. The bias in history can be double because we have the point of view of the witness and then the as of the historian. The worst about this idea is that it can really distort the facts so that we don't know what to believe. When referring to selection in history, it all depends on the historians analyzing different sources, he may have national or cultural bias that influenced his understanding.Some historians might believe one point of view whereas another one may believe the opposite. Selection is history is inevitable and a lot depends on what the historian has learnt in his life before he chooses the best possible sources. As for example if a historian learnt since the ginning of his life that communism was the best economic system, he will base his knowledge on what he has known for his whole life and be very critical of capitalism. How can we trust sources that we are not sure they are giving us real facts?In history there have always been hidden documents and hidden agendas in order to keep a country under control. On the other hand there is an argument that states that knowledge in history can be obtain despite bias and selection because history is about people and so if we know about their point of view, we know more about why wings happened and hoe people felt at that time. This is important but we have to be careful and try our best to find sources that show both sides of the information researched, it also important to know the cultural bias of a historian before we believe totally what he says.If we look at science today it has helped us a lot in the world as it has developed technology which has made our lives a lot easier. When referring to selection in science we notice that each time a new experiment is conducted the results may change a little. It is for that reason that scientist use specific methods, variables and materials in order to get almost the same results each time. It is in this idea that we see selection as scientists are forced to choose specific methods, variables and materials.But how can the scientist know that the methods he is using are the most efficient ones? In science topic bias can be seen as money from research. For example in Science the holes in the ozone layer have been a trend for many years in which scientists have told the people of the world to use more renewable energy. But how can we be sure that using renewable energy will really help us? Science is constantly changing due to new technologies that make experiments less selective and give a less biased point of view.It is in this idea that we can say that technology is the key to developing science and being more sure of the knowledge we get from it. For example a scientist from European background may have different interpretations of results in comparison with the scientist from Saudi Arabia due to their religious beliefs and cultural background. Conclusion: In conclusion I believe that science and history are both very important in human development and I believe that even with bias and selection we are able to attain knowledge..I believe that in history bias and selection cannot be ignored, and that they are a very important part of understanding the human and emotional side of what happened. However in science bias and selection will decrease when more technologies are developed in order to decrease this bias and selection, which will let scientists, conduct their experiments, and repeat them systematically to show they are free of bias.

Playing The Enemy Response

Playing the Enemy After reading playing the enemy, I must say I was actually pretty Jealous of those fortunate enough to get to meet and leave an Impression on the great man Nelson Mandela. The story was truly Inspirational and after reading was very glad I chose this book to read. I knew that Nelson Mandela was a great man and I knew only part of his story. I knew that he was the first black president that South Africa had seen, I also knew that he was jailed for man years (27 to be exact) and was the reason that the South African Apartheid was ended.I was ignorant to the journey it took to get there and the millions of hearts he won over in his lifetime. It amazed me how throughout Mandela's life he was able to win over the hearts of almost everyone he spoke to. From what most may consider the lowest point of one's life, being locked away in prison, away from your family for 27 years, he was able to use this time to not only mellow down and forgive those who imprisoned him, but he also ended up befriending many of them. That to me spoke greatness upon his character.I recall reading about when he first started learning about the game of cubby, he did so all with the sole purpose of becoming close with one of his new prison wards. When I first read this part In the story I thought there Is no way this could work†¦ A big bad white South African man who obviously has many pre]delude against Mandela and his people, but somehow he was able to pull it off, whenever given the chance, Mandela would discuss rugby with him and eventually it paid off, he soon was living the life, he was given a hot plate†¦ A freaking.The fact that a prisoner was able to pull that off was quite amazing. But it never stopped there. He was later moved out of his small little cell and was put into a little house. Then it went even farther when he was taken on drives around town and I think the peak of his prison privileges came when Mandela was allowed to go freely for walks. Throu ghout the book, Mandela causes people to fall for his charm and I know exactly how he was able to accomplish this. It Is all explained In this quote by himself†¦ â€Å"If you talk too man In a language he understands, that goes to his head.If you talk to him In his language, that goes to his heart. † In many cases this quote could be taken eternally. In many cases people would feel more comfortable with the future leader because he would actually speak to them in their native tongue which, to the South African Whites who were not his biggest supporters, was Afrikaans. Ironically he was able to learn this skill with all the time he had in prison. Other examples how this quote held true throughout the story was that he learned the â€Å"language† of rugby. Learning to understand and like rugby early on while in prison really ended up helping a lot in the long run.I totally agree that when you find a common interest amongst enemies it is easier to unite and that is e xactly what he did when he used the sport of rugby to unite a nation. The sport was more Important than I first presumed It to be. At first I believed the game to Just be a game. Unlike Mandela I did not see the correlation between rugby and unification If the races, especially when black South Africans would always root for whatever team there country was playing. I think another great thing I got from this book was that he was not only a great him they could tell there was something about him.He Just had this way of neglecting with all types of people and a recurring theme amongst these interactions was that he had this smile. This smile that Just won over the world in my opinion. This warm gesture spoke a lot to me, how does one go through all he did and still come out smiling. I believe many people saw this and this was part why they trusted him as a leader. He was a symbol of hope to many and though not all will agree, I believe his actions say so much more than any media cover age can. Mandela did something no one else would probably of been able to achieve.To say this book as a great read would be an understatement. This was one of the most inspirational stories I have read and I am glad that I read this. I went to this little project not really expecting to take anything from it, instead I came out with a new perspective of not just this great man, but also on the word I live and the situations I deal with in my own life. This really made any problem I have dealt with Just feel insignificant but I mean that in a good way. Now I feel more encouraged to turn my trials and tribulations into strength much as my new idol Nelson Mandela did.

Individual Paper Assignment 2 - Frivolous Law Suits Reactions and Essay

Individual Paper Assignment 2 - Frivolous Law Suits Reactions and Analysis - Essay Example It means the person arguing the position has absolutely no idea of what he is doing, and has completely wasted the time of everyone. It doesnt denote that the case was not well argued, or that judge simply decided for the other side, but it indicates that there was no other side. The argument may turn out to be absurd and incompetent. The judge is not telling you that you are "wrong." The judge is telling you that you are out of your mind.† Yet another definition of Frivolous law was defined in the case â€Å"Texaco, Inc. v. Golart, 206 Conn. 454, 463-464, 538 A.2d 1017 (1988)†wherein it was defined as: â€Å"The definition of a frivolous appeal is set forth in the comment to Rule 3.1, wherein it is stated that â€Å"the action is frivolous if the client desires to have the action taken primarily for the purpose of harassing or maliciously injuring a person or if the lawyer is unable either to make a good faith argument on the merits of the action taken or to support the action taken by a good faith argument for an extension, modification or reversal of existing law.† Let us take the cases of Liebeck v. McDonalds Restaurants 1994, and Pearson v. Chung case filed in 2005. In February of 1992, Stella Liebeck of Albuquerque, New Mexico, was travelling in the passenger seat of her grandsons car when she was severely burned by McDonalds coffee. She was 79 years old then. The coffee was served in a Styrofoam cup at the drive through the window of a local McDonalds. After the coffee was served the grandson pulled his car forward and halted temporarily for Liebeck to add cream and sugar to her coffee. Liebeck positioned the cup in between her knees and tried to take away the plastic lid from the cup. As soon as she opened the lid, the whole contents of the cup poured forth onto her lap. Liebeck was wearing sweatpants and it absorbed the

Nourishing the Child Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Nourishing the Child - Research Paper Example It has become very sophisticated to the point that it does not only promote growth but also protection from infections, visual acuity and mental development. Yet in spite of the many perceived benefits of the formula, much of the world still recognized that breast milk is still best for babies. The World Health Organization has affirmed in its 2003 publication entitled "The Global Strategy for Infant and Young Child Feeding" that it is the lack of exclusive breastfeeding that is the leading factor for increase morbidity and mortality of the infant and the young child. (p. 5) This paper aims to provide a scholarly and insightful discussion on the issues surrounding the topic of whether it is more appropriate to conduct breastfeeding rather than providing bottled milk. To achieve this, I will draw only upon relevant research articles that are peer-reviewed and are less than 5 years of publication the latter being important so that it is not outdated. I will also be relating the issue to the Canadian setting. The perspective that I will be assuming would be that of a nursing researcher and since this is the case, I will be providing the relevant role of the nurse regarding this issue. In the end, I will be forming my own nursing judgement regarding which between the two is more appropriate. It is remarkable to find that the topic regarding breast milk and bottled milk has generated a wealth of research. Most of them points out the benefits of breast milk consumption ranging from physical and mental development to protection from infection and illness for the babies to the lesser probability of women to develop cancer and other diseases. Due to the voluminous data that is available, I will only be citing some of these studies. Breastfed children were established by Coppa and colleagues (2006) to have a lower incidence of acute gastroenteritis because of the oligosaccharides of human milk. After studying 304 infants, English researchers Quigley and his colleagues (2006) concluded that breastfeeding also reduced the probability of diarrhoeal disease and that the protective effect of breast feeding did not persist beyond two months after breast feeding had stopped. Chantry, Howard and Auinger (2006) also found that it reduces the possibility of acquiring respiratory tract infection while Marild and colleagues (2004) found that it reduces the risk of acquiring Urinary Tract Infection. The earlier the child is breastfed, the more the protection from UTI will be realized. Breast milking was shown not to be a factor contributing to Sudden Infant Death Syndrome by Hauck et.al. (2003). Edmond and his colleagues (2004) were able to come up with a number with their statement that 16% of neonatal deaths could be saved if all infants were breastfed from day 1 and 22% if breastfeeding started within the first hour. With regards to development, Bier (2002) found out human milk improves cognitive and motor development of infants. The longer the child is breastfeeding, the more likely he will be ahead in school (Victore et.al, 2005). After adjusting for social and perinatal confounders, Oddy et.al. (2003) states that the early introduction of milk other than

Responding to Groupthink and Faulty Reasoning at NASA Case Study - 6

Responding to Groupthink and Faulty Reasoning at NASA - Case Study Example From this paper it is clear that if group members have doubts but lack appropriate evidence to support their position, their doubts and concerns should still be communicated to authorized personnel who have the competencies and qualifications to evaluate the matter and substantiate whether there are valid support for the doubts. The important thing is that the concern has been effectively communicated and relayed to higher authorities.  The reporter stresses   "if I were head of NASA, I would have launched a rescue shuttle in as far as I am confident that the second shuttle would not meet the same fatal accident regarding the first foam strike that happened with Columbia. I would also solicit as much information as evidently possible to determine alternative courses of action where the Columbia crew could make it back to Earth as innovatively possible.   As indicated, NASA has followed these steps to change its culture and to resist groupthink: safety worries are encouraged to be communicated and are not out rightly dismissed; teams of engineers conduct simulations on diverse scenarios to assist in addressing problems and concerns; cross-checking of interventions, suggestions and recommendations from one team of engineers are validated by another group of engineers from a different research center to avoid group think and to encourage taking diverse perspectives; worst case scenarios are proactively established including establishment of contingency plans in these situations. If these changes and activities are continued to encourage innovative thinking, the agency could indeed continue with its progress. Progress could be slow at first but it is always better to be slow than sorry. "

DP CH 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

DP CH 2 - Essay Example The chapter also deals with the theoretical framework in order to deal with the diabetes issue among South Asian women. For this purpose, Precede Proceed Model will be discussed in length in order to form a systematic approach that will further help in identifying ways of mitigating the impact of diabetes among South Asian women in a rationale manner. There is no doubt that social, cultural, economic, and political factors affect the well being of individuals and the chapter will analyse the impact and influence of all these factors in a critical manner. This will further help in ascertaining the impact and influence of internal and external factors in a systematic manner. Data for this purpose will be collected mainly from, Nutrition journals, American Journal of Epidemiology, Diabetes Care journals, and Pub Med. The main concept for data search is based on ascertaining the rise of diabetes among South Asian women, internal and external factors affecting diabetes, socio-economic fac tors, cultural factors, and genetic and biological factors. The researcher believes that analyzing and assessing the above mentioned literatures will help in dealing with the research topic in a systematic and critical manner. Moreover, this will help in accomplishing the purposed major goals and objectives of the research in a significant manner. Overall, it can be believed that assessing social, demographic, cultural, and political factors through relevant literature will help in dealing with the research topic in a rationale and succinct manner. The next part of the discussion presents the theoretical framework that will further define the use of Precede Proceed Model in dealing with diabetes issue. Theoretical Framework The theory that has been used for analyzing the rise of diabetes among South Asian women is Precede Proceed Model. Precede Proceed Model is a health framework that helps policy makers, health planners, and healthcare professionals to analyze and design health car e programs in an effective and efficient manner. This model helps in analyzing the quality of life and assessing healthcare needs in a rationale manner. The most important and fundamental assumption of this model is the active participation of audience in terms of defining their issues along with ascertaining short and long term solutions in a significant manner. This model states that health behaviour is determined by individual and environmental factors and thus educational and ecological diagnosis is conducted in a systematic manner. Educational diagnosis in the form of Precede includes, predisposing, reinforcing, enabling constructs, educational diagnosis, and evaluation while ecological diagnosis in the form of Proceed includes policy, regulatory, organizational constructs in educational and environmental development. The Precede framework was firstly introduced in early 70s with a view that treatment plan is dependent on the educational diagnosis of the health problem to devel op intervention programs. The model is based on the notion that predisposing factors like knowledge, attitude, beliefs, self efficacy, and personal preferences in order to achieve personal desired healthcare goals and objectives. Precede Proceed Model gained immense popularity in the healthcare industry helping in developing intervention programs to deal with wide arrays of healthcare issues and problems. In the context of diabetes, it can be believed that the Precede Proceed Model has been proved as of great utility and importance in taking

Facebook list on nasdaq Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Facebook list on nasdaq - Essay Example A good number of these individuals basically use it for socialization while an equally reasonable number of the users also use it for business. This is evident from the increasing number of pages dedicated to commercial reason or building company relations all which cements business revenue. The Facebook functions increase the popularity of the site and business uses takes this popularity to a whole new level which is established when people look at the site as a revenue booster. Again, this brings in a totally new dimension beyond the social role; it portrays Facebook not as a social platform but a commercial site. This is the greatest disconnect with the regular Facebook user because the initial spirit seems to fade with passage of time. My initial view of Facebook, and notably that of the general public, was that Facebook was a purely social site thus when it transitions to a commercial site, then the prior views and its role fades with the transition. It soon loses its dominant role which is the single aspect that separated it from the likes of Google and Yahoo. The latter two companies defined their purpose as search engines early on in their operations. To me, this was the reason they have remained dominant to date. This is because the single role they undertook a t the beginning is the very same they have stuck with throughout. Unfortunately, we cannot say this of Facebook since they seem to slowly deviate from the very role that made it famous (Wankel and Charles 280). Even though the numbers represent a perfect opportunity for investors to cash in, my greatest problem is with the social function; the social role Facebook has been associated with. It is quite certain that with public listing, the company’s orientation will definitely change the scenario. It will initiate a change from revenue generation which has been the case to profit maximization. The millions of shareholders who will

Slavery in Colonial Latin America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Slavery in Colonial Latin America - Essay Example This is most evident in Latin America. The history of Latin America is a complex interplay of economic and political agenda that buffeted these countries in as a result of what can only be termed the struggle for supremacy between European powers from the 15th century. The term Latin America is ascribed to countries in South America, North America, Central America and the Caribbean Islands that lie south of the United States where the spoken language is of Spanish or Portuguese extraction. ("Latin America," 2007) Colonial Latin America is the period that many believe began with the discovery of Christopher Columbus of the Americas, referred to as the New World, landing in the Bahamas in 1492, but in fact the colonial era began when the Council of the Indies was convened in 1524 ad ended with the Comuero revolt in 1781. ("Colonial Period," 1998) This was after the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1493 divided the New World wherein the Spanish controlled everything west of the Line of Demarcation and the Portuguese had power over the east, which later became Brazil. At this point, the indigenous people, including the ruling Incas and Aztecs, had been overpowered by the colonists. Large percentages of the indigenous people in colonized Latin America died during this period, attributed mostly to diseases brought by the Europeans such as measles to which the natives had no defense against. It was to augment the pool of available slave labor that the colonists decided to take advantage of the wars in Western Africa which resulted in a glut of available slaves of African descent in the late 16th. This right of entrepreneurs to import slaves or asientos was controlled by King Charles I of Spain. These slaves were farmed out to the different colonies in large numbers, outnumbering the indigenous and European population combined. However, not all black immigrants are African-born. Spain brought Spanish-born Africans called "Ladinos" to work as mine laborers. Free Africans also immigrated to the New World in search of a better life. (Cruz, 2000) The move to free the slaves began in the French colony of Saint-Domingue in 1793 in the middle of the French Revolutions when Lger Flicit Sonthonax emancipated all slaves and made them full citizens, only to have it revoked in 1802 by Napoleon Bonaparte. Until 1870, when the slave trade was finally outlawed, it is estimated that 10 million Africans were brought to the Americas, almost half to the Caribbean islands and the Guiana's while 38% went to Brazil. Mainland Spanish America got 6% while North America and Europe roughly approximated 4.5% each. It seems undeniable from a popular point of view that the influences of the African immigrants, as slaves or otherwise, and to a lesser degree the European colonists who dominated them have served to enrich an otherwise self-contained population. The incursion of a foreign influence has led to the growth and development of the Latin American culture that would otherwise be unknown in the modern era. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the role of the importation of slaves of African descent on the social, cultural, and economic formation of Latin American countries. II. Role of Slavery on Colonial Latin America A. Social aspects Prior to the importation of

David Cole Interviews Dr. Franciscek Piper Essay

David Cole Interviews Dr. Franciscek Piper - Essay Example Franciszek Piper regarding the changes made in the gas chambers, signaled him some mysteries behind the Auschwitz camp that are yet waiting to be unlocked. Due to these inconsistencies, he concluded this video through a â€Å"revisionalistic† claim that the holocaust did not happen; that no one was ever gassed in the gas chambers. In my opinion, it was not wrong for David Cole to make his own assertions regarding the Holocaust. After all, he is entitled to his own opinion and to his own quest for the truth. However, what made this very controversial, especially for the Jews and for the Jewish Defence League led by Irv Rubin, is that Cole’s work was made so powerful by showing real interview footages with the considered experts, who are supposed to tell a detailed, honest, and accurate information to the public. Even more, he is Jewish by birth. Nonetheless, this type of work serves as an eye-opener that things that are claimed to be â€Å"truths† should also be examined for us to have a more credible and accurate

Critical commentary of two articles on Indigenous Australian Essay

Critical commentary of two articles on Indigenous Australian - Essay Example The article, therefore, makes a valid argument when it indicates that indigenous Australians must be credited for their role in conservation of the environment and the country’s cultural heritage. Talbot’s article is highly relevant to environment studies, since it proposes that conservation is best addressed from the roots. In this light, the author posits that Australia’s aboriginals would aid in these efforts, since their role in protecting and managing the environment is inherently linked to their traditional knowledge and responsibility, as custodians and protectors of the land they occupy. The article is also pertinent to the course, because it identifies some of the gaps that persist in Australia’s environment conservation efforts, as well as, potential mitigation measures. The article highlights several principle environmental, social and cultural issues. For example, it takes note of the fact that there have been few processes for acknowledging and getting consent from Aboriginals, while developing global heritage nominations. As a result, majority of the indigenous Australians feel isolated and disregarded, in the environment and heritage conservation efforts (Talbot, 2012). The article emphasizes that national government must formulate national policies on conservation, while engaging indigenous persons in the formal discussions. In addition, this article stresses that research institutions, governmental and non-governmental organizations should value cultural and ecological knowledge systems of the indigenous people. Talbot has written the article from the perspective of a concerned Australia citizen, and as an Aboriginal advocating for his people’s recognition in environmental conservation. The principal argument against the principal assertions of this article is that, the national government should independently make policies on environment and heritage preservation. The validity of this argument is

Monster by Sanyika Shakur Essay Example for Free

Monster by Sanyika Shakur Essay The book Monster by Sanyika Shakur is the story of one gang member’s life of crime growing up in a crime ridden neighbourhood outside Los Angeles. Then known as Kody Scott but given the name Monster by his fellow gang members because of his vicious and ruthless acts of violence, Shakur relates a life of crime that started at adolescence and escalated quickly. He relates to the reader that the only feelings of belonging and family that he truly experienced were in the family created by his fellow thugs through a life of shootouts and gangbanging. In the book, Shakur expresses memories of his mother’s only reactions to his crimes being disapproval and detachment, rather than concern or love. There is little evidence of order or community in Shakur’s experiences either in his time on the street or during his periods of incarceration. The novel Monster and the life of Sanyika Shakur paint a picture of a life ruled by the concepts of the social disorganization theory. The social disorganization theory, formulated by Burgess, Shaw and McKay, proposes that delinquency and crime are the results of communal institutions like family, church, school and local government fail and stop being active structures within a community. These communal institutions enforce social responsibility, care and concern for the community and positive behaviour within the community. When these institutions degrade and stop playing active roles in the lives of the citizens of a community, the organization and social responsibility of the community is lost and crime and negative behaviour can spread in their place. The memory of Kody’s graduation at the beginning of Monster is an example of the prevalence of social disorganization in Shakur’s life. He relates how, at the age of 12, his graduation from grade school is treated as a family event and attended by all his siblings, an aunt and an uncle. But as soon as the graduation ceremony ends and the family returns home it disintegrates, with the other authority figures leaving and Kody being yelled at by his mother to clean up his room. There is no praise, no positive reinforcement, just yelling and orders. As a result Kody flees for the place that he feels he will get that acceptance, love and sense of accomplishment – the hangout of a local gang member. It is in this early experience that it can be seen how the life of a gang member, in young Kody’s eyes, will meet his needs far better than living the life of a civilian and working a regular job, as he describes the clothes of one gang member he emulates as, â€Å"Things our parents could not afford to give us† (Shakur 6). He has been given no reinforcement from his family unit, a family where there is seemingly little or no structure, so he finds that structure and reinforcement, along with the promise of better things, in gang life. Later, after being released from prison, Shakur reflects on his neighbourhood that he grew up in and recognizes its shortcomings: â€Å"I couldn’t believe the drabness of the city. Burned-out buildings and vacant houses took up whole blocks. Gas stations and liquor stores owned by Koreans were on every corner. Mexican merchants hung on corners, hawking oranges like dope. The obvious things that had been there all along I never saw differently† (Shakur 360). This illustration paints a picture of a neighbourhood that is rife with the characteristics of a socially disorganized environment. Shakur mentions no schools, no churches, no public parks or recreational sources of positive enforcement. The things that stand out to him are liquor stores and Mexican fruit sellers. There are burned-out buildings and vacant houses, representative of the void where positive reinforcement and social responsibility is blatantly absent in his community. As a result, these streets that now cause him to feel depressed are the same ones that led him to a life of crime and murder. The things that are absent from the streets that Shakur sees were also absent from his life. He never mentions school again after that early graduation memory except to say that he never went back, and there is no mention of church at all by him or his family. The concept of faith is so foreign to him that he does not understand it when the Muslim leaders in prison try to explain faith to him. There is no evidence of social responsibility in the neighbourhood that Shakur describes, only poverty and businesses like liquor stores that provide sources of negative distraction from life and responsibility instead of encouraging improvement or positive behaviour. One of the elements of gang life that appealed to Shakur was the structure provided by the organization of gang sets. He states, â€Å"All attempts at new ideas are not successful. Sets fail, much like businesses. Much work goes into establishing a set. With the success of a set comes universal recognition† (Shakur 81). This description indicates that Shakur’s way of thinking and personality would have benefited from a more positive source of structure and organization, such as in church, school or a community work program. In this illustration Shakur explains that successfully organizing a gang set garners recognition and respect, the ultimate goal. But the gang members he’s organizing with have not been taught how to organize themselves for a positive goal, like a school athletic team or a church choir or study group. In the absence of that positive reinforcement their organizational skills turn to forming a successful set that will have adequate numbers and sufficient weapons to launch an attack on gang rivals. The social network that should have existed within the community as a source of strength and positive reinforcement was replaced by a social network within the gang community, spreading violence and drug use throughout a community weakened by lack of leadership and socially positive structures. There is a sense of apathy portrayed in the neighbourhood that Shakur grew up gangbanging in that allowed the social disorganization to spread. He describes occasions in which he and fellow gang members would follow rivals into local businesses to assault them and business owners would simply step out of the way. This is another scenario in which positive behaviour could have been reinforced. The local businesses do not represent a traditional social structure like a school or a church, but a group of local businesses banding together to stop gang violence on their premises and to enforce the law against crime and encourage local youth towards more positive pursuits would have produced the same effect. Instead, other citizens turn a blind eye to the theft and violence that occurs on their property out of fear or apathy. This attitude allows the disorganization to occur just as the failing of the communal institutions does. Shakur’s experiences in the multiple prisons in which he is incarcerated also provide evidence of a lack of structure or positive reinforcement. Shakur repeatedly gives examples of prison guards that mistreat and beat African American inmates because they are African American or because they are gang members. When discussing the juxtaposition of the environment he grew up in with the prison environment he explains that much of the disorganization and violence in prison stemmed from, â€Å"the fact that most of us grew up in eighty percent New Afrikan community policed – or occupied – by an eighty five percent American pig force that is clearly antagonistic to any male in the community, displaying this antagonism at every opportunity by any means necessary with all the brute force and sadistic imagination they can muster†(Shakur 223-24). In a socially organized society law enforcement would be another structure that would reinforce positive behaviour within the community and help to encourage a sense of community responsibility. Here, Shakur describes a police force where the opposite is true. Instead of encouraging positive action the police antagonize citizens, especially those that are male, and use brute force and unnecessary violence to enforce the law, while taking advantage of their position of authority over the citizens. Instead of using their authority to be role models within the community and protect the people from crime by discouraging it, the police that Shakur grew up with on his Los Angeles streets abused their power and took advantage of their authority to wrongfully accuse Shakur and his community. This represents a clear departure from the social structure necessary for social organization, and a degradation that could have definitely resulted in the presence of social disorganization instead. The structures of authority within the gang world relate Shakur’s need for reinforcement and organization that he didn’t find in his social community. During his stay in prison he describes plays for power in which an inmate member of one gang would physically assault or publicly humiliate an inmate member of another gang as a means of establishing dominance for himself over the other inmate and for his gang set over the other gang set. Again, this is an example of the lack of social structure, both out in the community and within the confines of the prison, resulting in a social structure and community spreading in the criminal world and encouraging negative behaviour and crime. It is in this prison system that functions as a microcosm of social disorganization that Shakur discovered the New Afrikan Independence Movement, which is presented as a contrast to the unstructured, violent, socially disorganized world that Shakur has known. Again, he feels a sense of belonging in the structure and positive reinforcement of his attitude. He learns to take pride in his heritage and where he is from instead of reacting out of anger and ignorance at the police and other members of society that he feels degrade him. In the movement Shakur explains that he learned that his behaviour was directly related to the environment he was in and the reinforcement he was given, and that the only way to create a positive environment for himself and his people was to create one. In himself, Shakur develops his own social organization. He describes how he left the gang community while in prison and expresses surprise that there was not more resistance. It makes sense that after a life in the gang world where any opposition or threat to the authority and structure of the gang was met with anger, violence, and potentially death, that Shakur would be apprehensive about announcing his decision to turn his back on gang life and his surprise at the calm reaction. Shakur also changes his life outside of prison, instructing his friends to not address him using the N-word and refusing the cocaine they bring him. The reactions of his friends and family to his new attitude and outlook on life illustrate the reinforcement of social disorganization. His gang member friends try to give him money and drugs right away so that he can delve right back into a life of illegal activity and crime. His mother displays a detached, almost unemotional attitude that indicates that she doesn’t think it’s possible for him to avoid returning to the gangbanging life he knew and make a new life for himself. In her reaction, his mother displays all the characteristics of a socially disorganized community in her inability to offer positive reinforcement or organizational help or structure. It is only through Shakur’s will and new sense of purpose that he escapes the socially disorganized world he lived in for one that is organized with the structure and positive reinforcement he needs to succeed. Works Cited Shakur, Sanyika. Monster. New York: Grove Press, 1993.

Single Phase To Three Phase Converter Engineering Essay

Single Phase To Three Phase Converter Engineering Essay Several solutions have been proposed where the objective is to reduce harmonic distortions in a generating system. It is now the renewable power utilization that is growing more, thus a small scale Wind Energy Conversion System is concentrated which needs harmonic reduction. The wind energy unit that we are planning to install is single phase so we go for a single phase to three phase ac-dc-ac converter designing to reduce harmonics. Parallel converters have been used to improve the power capability, reliability, efficiency, and redundancy. Usually the operation of converters in parallel requires a transformer for isolation. Here a single-phase to three-phase drive system composed of two parallel single-phase rectifiers and a three-phase inverter is proposed. Compared to the conventional topology, the proposed system permits: to reduce the rectifier switch currents; the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the grid current with same switching frequency or the switching frequency with s ame THD of the grid current; and to increase the fault tolerance characteristics. Also the loss of the proposed system is lower. The aforementioned benefits justify the initial investment of the proposed system, due to the increase of number of switches. Index Terms- Converters, IGBT, MOSFET, Renewable Energy, Single Phase to Three Phase, Wind Energy. Introduction The paper deals with the enhancement of the usage of renewable energy and improvement of its utility. Wind energy is one of the most promising alternative energy technologies of the future. Throughout recent years, the amount of energy produced by wind-driven turbines has increased exponentially due to significant breakthroughs in turbine technologies, making wind power economically compatible with conventional sources of energy. One of the limitations of wind energy is Harmonic distortion that hinders the utility of the wind generation. Harmonics is referred as the disturbance or the deterioration of the purity of current or voltage after undergoing several changes or transformations. Since power quality is very important it is mandatory to discover methods to reduce harmonics and retain purity. As corrective action is always expensive and unpopular solution more thought and investment are devoted at the design stage on the basis that prevention is better than cure. The sources of harmonics can be divided into 3 categories: Large numbers of distributed non-linear components of small rating. Large and continuously randomly varying non-linear loads. Large static power converters and transmission system level power electronics devices. Harmonics Reduction Technique In general there are many techniques to reduce harmonics like usage of harmonic filters [13] PWM technique [4], [5], [13] Filter is a device that is designed to suppress harmonic current and voltages from being injected into the power system since these causes damaging effects to the devices being used in the system. The harmful and damaging effects of harmonic distortion can be avoided by the usage of filters. There can be two types of filters that are used in order to reduce the harmonics distortion i.e. the active filters and the passive filters. Active harmonic filters are electronic devices that eliminate the undesirable harmonics on the network by inserting negative harmonics into the network. The active filters are normally available for low voltage networks. In order to control power and reactive power, it is essential to control the magnitude and phase angle of the injected voltage by the converter [1], [4], [5], [7]. At the same time, it is desirable to regulate the DC bus voltage. Another requirement is to minimize the injection of the lower order harmonics by the converter. The pulse width modulation (PWM) is utilized to achieve the following objectives: To control the output AC voltage for a constant DC voltage. To minimize the harmonics subject to the constraints on the switching losses, generation of noise etc. Circuit Design The project deals with a converter design as an attempt to reduce harmonic distortions in wind energy conversion system. We design a converter circuit for a single phase three phase conversion with two single phase rectifiers connected in parallel and a three phase inverter. The experiment is simulated using MATLAB Simulink software and the results are compared for the effectiveness of the converter circuit [9]. Also the selection of switch for the converter is very essential thus we compare two different switches- MOSFET and IGBT and analyze its characteristics for the suitability and effectiveness. Process of Switch Selection The below table shows the comparison of different parameters considered in the course of selection of switch for the converter thereby helping us to justify our selection. The Table below shows the comparison between different possible switches that are used in converters. We can see the characteristics and parameters based on which the switches are selected. TABLE I. SELECTION OF SWITCH FOR THE CONVERTER CIRCUIT Device Comparison area diode rectifier Thyristor [SCR] GTO IGBT MOSFET Inverter switch X X AC-DC conversion X X X X X Inverter types Current source X X Voltage source X X X Efficiency High High Low High High Gate control signal NA current current voltage voltage Gate current NA < 2 Amps 400-1000 Amps 0.1 Amps < 0.01 Amp Voltage rating High High High To 1200 Volts 4000 volts Current rating 6000 Amps 5500 Amps 1000 Amps 1000 Amps 600 Amps Switching losses NA Medium High Low Low Switching speed NA Low Low Very high Very High From the comparison it is evident that MOSFET, IGBT are the two most suitable switches for the Inverter section of converter as MOSFET and IGBT showed good efficiency, voltage and current ratings. Also the switching speed and switching losses are satisfactory. And it doesnt need a special switching angle control mechanism. Thus the MOSFET, IGBT rectifier/inverter system is the proposed converter for the small scale wind energy conversion system. Also comparison between MSOFET and IGBT operation in Single phase Three phase conversion as well as Three phase Three phase conversion is done. Technology used for switching The maximum achievable efficiency of any practical system is 0.93. However due to design considerations and operational constraints, the percentage drastically reduces to a maximum of 0.5, in the case of a wind energy system. The aim of this project is to improve the normal operating mean efficiency of 0.29. Various techniques have been instrumental in reducing the overall losses in the system, and also particular interest is streamlined in the domain of reduction of harmonics in the system. A lot of techniques by which, losses, and particularly, harmonics can be reduced have been figured out by analyzing various IEEE projects. Apart from circuit element modifications, design modifications have also been analyzed. The Circuit Design Here as per the circuit diagram we can see 14 switches totally i.e. 4 for each single phase rectifiers and 6 for the three phase inverter. Now when the single phase supply is given to the system the rectifiers convert the AC single phase supply to DC supply then it is fed to the inverter for further conversion into a three phase AC supply. Here as we can see the rectifiers are connected in parallel to each other, as we know the working of the rectifier. The converter can either use MOSFET as a switch or IGBT as a switch. FIGURE 1. CIRCUIT DESING FOR SINGLE PHASE_ THREE PHSE CONVERTER Here as per the circuit diagram we can see 14 switches totally i.e. 4 for each single phase rectifiers and 6 for the three phase inverter. Now when the single phase supply is given to the system the rectifiers convert the AC single phase supply to DC supply then it is fed to the inverter for further conversion into a three phase AC supply. Here as we can see the rectifiers are connected in parallel to each other, as we know the working of the rectifier. The converter can either use MOSFET as a switch or IGBT as a switch. Rectifier is a device that converts AC to DC signal. In a single phase controlled rectifier there are 4 switching devices two in each leg. Two switches at a time namely alternate switches of the legs are on at a time. Thereby converting the AC signal into DC signal. Then it is fed to the inverter which has 6 switching devices two per leg, thus a 3 phase inverter has 3 legs with 2 switches per leg. The working mechanism is almost similar to the rectifiers. Simulation using MATLAB/Simulink MOSFET Based Converter Simulation The MATLAB simulation model clearly depicts the no of switches used, also the parameters involved in the analysis of the circuit. Simulation results help us clearly conclude the difference in the performance based analysis of MOSFET and IGBT converters. C:Documents and SettingsBIRDDesktopchithra simulationmosfet singlemosfet single.bmp FIGURE.2 MOSFET based Single phase three phase converter using MATLAB Simulation MATLABÂ  is a high-level language and interactive environment for numerical computation, visualization, and programming. Using MATLAB, you can analyze data, develop algorithms, and create models and applications. The language, tools, and built-in math functions enable you to explore multiple approaches and reach a solution faster than with spreadsheets or traditional programming languages, such as C/C++ or Java. Here we simulated converter circuit with MOSFET switches and IGBT switches and compared the difference in the capacity of reducing harmonics. FIGURE.3 RECTIFIER OUTPUT FOR MOSFET BASED SINGLE PHASE THREE PHASE CONVERTER USING MATLAB SIMULATION. This graph represents the rectifier output. The voltage amplitude is 310V i.e. the harmonics in the voltage causes spikes which reaches this value, where as the original voltage is around 230V. The graph is plotted for a time period of 20 milliseconds. The positive half wave is rectified better than the negative half wave. We can clearly see the spike occurrence in the positive half wave due to harmonics. . FIGURE. 4 FINAL OUTPUT OF THE MOSFET BASED CONVERTER SYSTEM USING MATLAB SIMULATION The output is around 220V with reduced harmonics. The inverter output by itself has reduced harmonics distortion found in the rectifier output. The spikes that were found in the rectifier are not present in the inverter output waveform. From this its evident that the single phase to three phase voltage converter design helps in reducing the harmonics. The MOSFET switch used is a voltage controlled device and has a high switching frequency that enhances the rectification as well as inversion of the generated voltage. The single phase to three phase configuration is helpful in reducing the harmonics is hence proved from the graphs above. IGBT Based Converter Simulation C:Documents and SettingsBIRDDesktopchithra simulationigbt singleigbt single.bmp FIGURE 5: MATLAB SIMULATION DIAGRAM FOR IGBT BASED SINGLE PHASE-THREE PHASE CONVERTER The simulation model diagram for the IGBT single phase to three phase converter is given above. We can see that the topology is similar to that of the MOSFET based converter except for that the IGBT block contains a diode connected parallel to it. C:Documents and SettingsBIRDLocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.Word230r1.bmp FIGURE.6 RECTIFIER OUTPUT WAVEFORM OF IGBT BASED SINGLE PHASE THREE PHASE CONVERTER WITH 220V SUPPLY This graph is the rectifier output for a 220V input supply. In this graph the magnitude of output is around 220V which means the input is completely rectified. The occurrence of spike is at the junction of two half waves. Thus the completeness of the half waves is affected by the harmonic distortions in the case of IGBT based converter. C:Documents and SettingsBIRDLocal SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.Word220op.bmp FIGURE.VII FINAL OUTPUT WAVEFORM OF THE SYSTEM WITH 220V SUPPLY The output graph shows the reduction in harmonics to some extent the magnitude of harmonics is reduced and is evident in the output graph. ANALYSIS OF HAMONIC REDUCTION WITH VARIATION OF INPUT INDUCTANCE Initially we analyzed the system effectiveness for various input voltages like 230V, 220V, 200V etc., where we found a prominent result only for 220V input supply. Now that changing in voltage is not producing enough difference thus we try to change the input inductance and realize the effectiveness of the MOSFET and IGBT based conversion systems. FIGURE. 8 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF VARIATION OF HARMONICS WITH VARIATION OF INDUCTANCE IN A MOSFET BASED SINGLE PHASE THREE PHASE CONVERTER In the single phase to three phase conversion topology of converter using MOSFET, the inductors L2 and L4 (corresponding to the negative cycle of supply) are varied from 0.1 mH to 0.4 mH under a varying operating voltages between 220 V and 230 V. The results that are thus obtained are represented in the graph. For operating voltage 220 V, the output voltage peak varies between 214.4 V and 206.1 V corresponding to the change in input inductance values between 0.1 mH and 0.4 mH. Similarly, for operating voltage 230 V, the variation in peak voltage is between 224.2 V and 215.4 V for the same change in input inductance. FIGURE.9 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF VARIATION OF HARMONICS WITH INDUCTANCE IN AN IGBT BASED SINGLE PHASE THREE PHASE CONVERTER. In the single phase to three phase conversion topology of converter using IGBT, the inductors L2 and L4 (corresponding to the negative cycle of supply) are varied from 0.1 mH to 0.2 mH under a varying operating voltages between 220 V and 230 V. The results that are thus obtained are represented in the graph. For operating voltage 220 V, the output voltage peak varies between 219.4 V and 216.5 V corresponding to the change in input inductance values between 0.1 mH and 0.2 mH. Similarly, for operating voltage 230 V, the variation in peak voltage is between 229.8 V and 226.3 V for the same change in input inductance. In the above graphs we see the variation of harmonics with the variation of input inductance thus choosing the input inductance wisely can affect the harmonics reduction process. CONCLUSION As per the above result and discussion we saw the variation of harmonics with variation of voltage magnitude and input inductance accordingly, with the result we observe that single phase three phase MOSFET based converter reduces spikes to a great extent without any loss in the voltage magnitude when the input inductance is of 0.1mH each. But when the inductance is changed to L1, L3= 0.1mH and L2, L4=0.4mH the output consists of negative peaks without loss in voltage magnitude. Coming to IGBT based converter, the single phase three phase converter has low harmonics in the rectifier as well as the inverter outputs when the inductance in L1, L3=0.1mH and L2, L4=0.2mH.when the inductance is changed to 0.1mH all the rectifier output has little heavy spike at the junction of the half waves which are reduced without voltage loss.

Clinically Isolated Syndrome and MS

Clinically Isolated Syndrome and MS CHAPTER 1 – GENERAL PRINCIPLES 1.1 Terminology Clinically isolated syndrome (CIS) is a central nervous system demyelinating event isolated in time that is may or may not lead to the development of multiple sclerosis (MS). It is a term that describes a first clinical episode with features suggestive of multiple sclerosis (MS). It usually occurs in young adults (19-30 years old) and affects optic nerves, the brainstem, or the spinal cord. Although patients usually recover from their presenting episode. (1) The term â€Å"clinically isolated syndrome† (CIS) is used to describe a first episode of neurologic episode that lasts at least 24 hours and is caused by inflammation and demyelination in one or more sites in the central nervous system (CNS). CIS may be presented as monofocal or multifocal: Monofocal episode:The person experiences a single neurologic sign or symptom such as an attack of optic neuritis that is caused by a single lesion. Multifocal episode:The person experiences more than one sign or symptom such as an attack of optic neuritis accompanied by weakness on one side of the body (hemiparesis) that is caused by lesions in more than one place in CNS. Individuals who experience a CIS may or may not go on to develop MS. In diagnosing CIS, the physician faces two challenges: first, to determine whether the patient is experiencing a neurologic episode caused by damage of the CNS, and second, to determine the possibility that a person experiencing this type of demyelinating episode is having high risk to develop MS. Of the people who are eventually diagnosed with MS, 85% experienced a first attack that is referred to as a clinically isolated syndrome (CIS). (1) If an MRI scan of the brain and spinal cord shows evidence suggestive of MS at the time of a clinically isolated syndrome or at the time of a second episode, then MS will be diagnosed. However, not all patients who experience a clinically isolated syndrome will go to develop MS (2). For many patients, there will be no MRI evidence suggestive of MS and no further symptoms or episodes. 1.2 history The first journal article including the term â€Å"clinically isolated syndrome† appeared only 20 years ago .Increasing availability of  magnetic resonance technology in the 80s improved diagnosis of  CNS  demyelinating disorders, and the arrival of disease-modifying medications for  multiple sclerosis  starting in mid-90s increased the importance of correct diagnosis and treatment. Long term follow up studies of patients presenting with an isolated clinical syndrome characteristic of multiple sclerosis led to the identification of risk factors for conversion to clinically definite multiple sclerosis (3). Today, no uniform consensus definition for a clinically isolated syndrome exists. In 2008, a panel of multiple sclerosis experts recommended that a clinically isolated syndrome be defined as a monophasic presentation with suspected underlying inflammatory demyelinating disease and recommended 5 subtypes based on monofocal or multifocal symptoms, presence or absence of asymptomatic MRI lesions, or patients without symptoms but with a suggestive MRI (3,4). 1.3 Epidemiology A study was made to determine whether the incidence of clinically isolated syndrome (CIS) the precursor form of multiple sclerosis (MS) that encompasses optic neuritis and transverse myelitis as well as other clinical presentations, varies by race/ethnicity in a multi-ethnic, population-based cohort (5). The methods that was used is based on electronic record searches and complete medical records review to identify all newly diagnosed CIS and MS cases in the population-based, multiethnic membership of Southern California Kaiser Permanente (KPSC) between 2008 and 2009. The KPSC membership contributed 7,410,754 person-years of observation during the study period and the racial/ethnic distribution was 36.5% white, 8.6% black, 43.4% Hispanic, 9.3% Asian/Pacific Islanders (Asian/PI) and 1.9% other (6). The results were the identification of 254 incident cases of CIS cases who did not yet met McDonald criteria for MS and did not have other obvious causes (viral, lupus, ischemia). The most common clinical presentation was optic neuritis (48.4%) followed by transverse myelitis (32.7%), other forms of mono-regional CIS (9.8%) and poly-regional CIS (9.1%). The average age at diagnosis with CIS was 42.9 years (range 14.8-80.8) and 70.5% were women. Among CIS cases, the racial/ethnic distribution was 47.6% white, 12.6% black, 33.1% Hispanic, 4.3% Asian/PI and 2.4% other. The incidence of CIS was 3.4 per 100,000 person-years. Incidence of CIS was higher in black (5.1, 95%CI=3.5-7.1) and white, non-Hispanic individuals (4.5, 95%CI=3.7-5.3) compared with white, Hispanic (2.6, 95%CI=2.1-3.2) and Asian/PI individuals (1.6, 95% CI = 0.8 2.9; p In conclusion the incidence of CIS is 3.4 per 100,000 person-years in a multi-ethnic, population-based cohort of Southern Californians. The incidence of CIS is higher in black and white individuals compared with Hispanic and Asian/PI individuals.6) 1.4 Risk of developing multiple sclerosis after clinically isolated syndrome Studies suggest that people who experienced a clinically isolated syndrome have a less than 50% risk of developing MS within five years of experiencing the initial symptoms (7). There is no single examination that can determine whether a person who experiences a clinically isolated syndrome will or will not go to develop MS. However, researchers have tried to identify factors that might influence the possibility of developing MS and help differentiate between people who have a higher and lower risk to develop MS. Though these classifications do not establish absolute risk of developing MS, they may help to guide people in making decisions about further testing or treatment (1,7). Figure 1: Progression of the disease for CIS and MS types. Source https://sbvimprover.com Factors that influence the likelihood of developing MS: 1. Type of clinically isolated syndrome Many studies have shown that different types of clinically isolated syndrome (i.e. transverse myelitis, optic neuritis, brainstem syndrome) in relation to the risk of developing MS. These studies suggest that optic neuritis is associated with a lower risk of developing MS and better long-term outcome than other types of clinically isolated syndromes (7). 2. Symptoms experienced during a clinically isolated syndrome Isolated sensory symptoms, which include tingling, numbness, or visual impairment are thought to be associated with a lower risk of developing MS compared to the presence of symptoms of motor system involvement , which are associated with a higher risk .(1) 3. MRI markers A brain MRI scan at the time of the clinical episode of CIS is thought to be the most useful predictive tool. A normal MRI scan showing no lesions is associated with a lower risk of developing MS. In the other hand, a brain scan that shows a high number or volume of lesions is associated with a higher risk of developing MS (1,7). 4. Laboratory markers A test that is used to confirm or rule out a diagnosis of MS is a lumbar puncture. A lumbar puncture involves removing and analyzing a sample of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), specific markers in the cerebrospinal fluid have the ability to indicate MS activity. Studies have investigated whether analysis of CSF can help predict the possibility of developing MS after a clinically isolated syndrome. One of these studies was based on the data of 40 patients who presented with a clinically isolated syndrome and have been examined with MRI scanning and CSF analyzing within the following two months. Of the 15 patients who developed MS, 14 had abnormalities on MRI and 13 tested positive for markers of disease activity in their CSF. The risk of developing MS was significantly higher in patients who tested positive in CSF analysis and had abnormalities on their first MRI scan compared to patients who were negative for both or one of the tests (7,8). However, because it is less useful as a predictive tool than MRI, a lumbar puncture is not routinely recommended in cases of CIS as described in Table (1). High risk Low risk Motor system symptoms Isolated sensory symptoms High number and volume of brain lesion on MRI Normal brain MRI Table (1): Symptoms in high risk and low risk to develop MS In conclusion motor system symptoms and high number and volume of lesion on brain MRI are indicative of high risk of developing MS, in the other hand isolated sensory symptoms and normal brain MRI are most probably with low risk of developing MS (7).

African Reaction :: essays research papers

How the European Settlers Further Oppressed the Native Africans   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the last few readings and cases studies, women and the peasant farmers were the subject and target of much of the white European aggression. The whites saw the women and peasants as minor threats to their occupation of the land and used this idea to further the oppression in African states. Chapter 11   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the Orange Free State the main target of the white oppression of blacks were women. Women were subjected to mental and physical abuse routinely in their everyday lives. To see that there were documented accounts of rape by police men and physical brutality towards women for simply not complying to the regulations set by the whites is sickening and disheartening for all of the human race. However, it is encouraging that even after twenty years of battling and trying to get some sort of relaxation of rules, that the resistance stayed strong and true.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After the ‘native policy’ was passed which tried to keep women at home and working primarily for themselves and their children, there was a shortage of labor in the towns took the women out of the rural homes and into the urban setting of domestic employment. This meant more civilized work for black women, which as a result led to a stronger economy base.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This was not the end result of the oppression that the black women would receive. They were forced to carry passes and the black women united on May 28, 1913 to vow that no matter what actions that the whites did to them they refused to carry the passes. This is known as a passive resistance. A nonviolent display by the women that frustrated the whites more than anything. The whites tried to crush the resistance many times and succeeded, but only for a short time. This resistance was finally resolved and the women were allowed to live without carrying passes. The resistance by this group of black women set the standard for all women, all classes included, that when united, victory is a realistic and possible goal. Chapter 15   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the Giriama resistance, there was a leader, someone that called all the women together to unite and to make a stand to the British oppression and that was Mekatalili. Mekatalili acted as a politician for the women bargaining and working for the rights of African women. The women realized that it was much easier to follow someone that had an understanding of their oppression.

Poetry Difficulty :: essays research papers

Poetry Difficulty   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Poetry unlike fiction is solely based on the author’s personal take on a certain subject. The tone, diction, syntax, and mood of a poem are all determined by the author of the poem. For some readers, to interpret a poem or explain the plot can be a difficult task. Other forms of literature such, as fiction is much easier to understand and discuss.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One reason fiction is easier to understand and discuss is that it has a plot, setting, a cast of characters, and a theme. Most fiction books follow the same common outline when it comes to structure. Poetry does not fit in this category. Poetry can be written about something or about nothing. A reader can interpret a poem in more than one way. On occasion, a poem may be difficult to discuss or understand because the reader doesn’t know what the author is writing about.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Fictional stories are usually longer than poems. Poets also utilize literary techniques such as alliteration, assonance, and repetition in their poetry to influence the way a reader feels when reading the piece of literature. Fictional stories may also have some of these techniques in them, but they are lost amongst the plot and story line.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Every author whether poet or writer has their own personal style of writing. Poets have more flexibility with their style. Long stanzas, rhythm, punctuation, no punctuation, fragments, and repetition are just a few options a poet has when creating their masterpiece. These tools may make it difficult for a reader to understand the full meaning of a poem. Diction can also play a role with problem in understanding poetry. A reader may need to research where the author is from and what year the poem was written in, in order to get the full effect of the poem and the underlying meanings in it.

The Importance of Thrasymachus in Plato’s Republic Essays -- Plato Rep

The Importance of Thrasymachus in Plato’s Republic   Ã‚      Dr. Malters’s comments: This student does two things quite remarkable for an undergraduate student. In his compact essay, not only does he display an in-depth understanding of complex perspectives on justice put forth by the protagonist Socrates, he deftly explains how Plato has artfully made rude objections by a seemingly minor character early in the dialogue function as a structuring device for nearly all the important ideas examined thereafter. In Plato's Republic, the character Thrasymachus provides an intense yet short-lived appearance in the discussion of justice early in the story. Though he seems to almost completely withdraw from the discussion for the remainder of the book, his early arguments provide a major impetus in Socrates' search for justice and prove to be an ever-present force contributing throughout the entirety of the work. After Socrates refutes the primary arguments of Justice from Cephalus and Polemarchus, Thrasymachus jumps into the discussion as a "wild beast" "as if to tear [Socrates] apart." He quickly insults the interlocutors and shows a high disdain for philosophy. He claims to know what justice really is without having to go through all the "asinine" arguments, simply stating it as "the interests of the stronger." He is clearly basing this view on simple observations of various rulers of his time. After Socrates refutes this argument by using examples of doctors and captains working for the benefit of their patients and sailors, respectively, Thrasymachus comes back with the argument of shepherds fattening sheep up for their own profit instead of for the benefit of the sheep. After this, Thrasymachus seems to w... ...onceived notions of philosophy determined by the mere appearance of things. After Socrates examines the five regimes of the soul as they move from aristocracy to tyranny, he is eventually able to show how the tyrant becomes a slave to his own appetites and proves most wretched of all leaders. This finally completely refutes Thrasymachus' argument that the unjust is better off than the just. He sums up the matter when he says that they "break away smartly.. .but [in the end] trot off uncrowned. "He goes on to say "as for the unjust, at the end of the race, most will be caught and whipped." Thrasymachus is indeed "caught" by Socrates in the beginning of the Republic, and by the end is whipped into wisdom of true justice from Socrates' enduring argument. Work Cited Plato, the Republic, translated by Allan Bloom. New York: Basic Books, 1991.

Course Project: Leadership and Organizational Behavior

My course project is based on organization of Creative Images, Inc. Creative Images is a California based company in computer graphic design studio who’s affiliated with Hollywood movie production companies. Creative Images work very closely with their clients and well known clients are Pixar Animation Studios, Walt Disney Company, and many other animation movie makers. Numbers of intelligent computer graphic designers are working hard to meet the status quo on current animated production movies and projects for the customers in night and weekends. The company is all about providing highest quality of work to world giant animated movie production companies and its well getting recognized by their customers. But only problem is that employees’ at Creative Images are not satisfied with their current benefits of their job since many people are subject to provide the project status and meeting deadlines which it requires for them to work nights and weekends without getting over-time paid. I am a Human Resource analysis just recently got hired by Creative Images to provide the best quality assurance to employees so that all employees are satisfy with their jobs and benefits so that it increases employee’s morale. I will be reviewing current job duties and functionalities so that their compensation and benefits are competitive with current market as well as provide them with incentives and rewards so that it increases employee’s morale and reduce number of high turnovers. Problem Statement The problem that Creative Images faces employee’s compensation and benefits package which it makes the company is not competitive and enjoyable work place. According to Human Resource’s firm wide hiring analysis, they have been showing increases of job turnovers in the past 2-3 years. During their exit interview, number of employee reported complains of their stressful working hours and have not been compensated for their amount of work that they provided in after working hours. After working excessive hours, their team or department did not recognized their showmanship for delivering high quality work and company did not award them or no creases in bonuses either. Since Creative Images are known for proving highest quality of work to their customers, in seldom, several other design studios who’s competition to Creative Images are trying to offer a job to elite and talented individuals from Creative Images to get the best people of for them. It’s causing the huge headache to the firm since many of them who left company are key employees who bring revenue to the company. To avoid any high turnovers, we need to provide very competitive salaries, incentives as well as reward programs to keep the Creative Images employees and bring higher standards and morale.

American Politics

Liberty is a concept that is commonly used by the average American in his daily affairs. A lexical definition of liberty states that it refers to the freedom to believe or act without the restriction of an unnecessary force. As far as the individual is concerned, liberty is the capacity of a person to act according to his will. But do we really know the history of America’s liberty? Do we really understand the historical events that have shaped the liberty that we know of and enjoy in these contemporary times?In this paper, I will be examining the roots of American liberty from the founding era to the modern debates surrounding the concept of liberty. I will also be looking into the proponents of liberty and those who have shared a significant role in defining and upholding liberty as we know it today. The Founding Era Hundreds of years before today, America was an entirely different place. Long before the creation of the Constitution, different European countries have already established their own settlements across America. The Spaniards and the French were among the early colonizers until the time of the British.During the rule of the British Empire, severe shortage in human labor resulted to enslavement and indentured servitude of the natives. In the years that followed, conflicts broke-out between the Native Americans and the English settlers. It should be noted, however, that Virginia already had black indentured servants in 1619 after being settled by Englishmen in 1607 (â€Å"Virginia Records Timeline: 1553-1743,† http://memory. loc. gov/ammem/collections/jefferson_papers/mtjvatm3. html), thereby suggesting that the attainment of genuine liberty from the colonizers is yet to be realized.It is perhaps during the time when the English pilgrims came to Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1620 and established their colonies that the concept of liberty came about, not the least in the context of the pre-Constitution history of America. As Mark Sargent w rites in his article â€Å"The Conservative Covenant: The Rise of the Mayflower Compact in American Myth,† some of the passengers in the Mayflower ship â€Å"who were not travelling to the New World for religious reasons would insist upon complete freedom when they stepped ashore† since the New World is already â€Å"outside the territory covered in their patent from the [British] crown† (Sargent, p.236). After the Seven Years War between the British forces and the alliance of French and American Indian forces in 1763, the British Empire enforced a series of taxes on the Americans so as to cover a portion of the cost for defending the colony. Since the Americans considered themselves as subjects of the King, they understood that they had the same rights to that of the King’s subjects living in Great Britain.However, the Sugar Act, Currency Act—both passed in 1764—the Stamp Act of 1765, the Townshend Act of 1767, to name a few, compelled the Americans to take drastic measures to send the message to the British Empire that they were being treated as though they were less than the King’s subjects in Great Britain (Jensen, p. 186). Moreover, the taxes were enforced despite the lack of representation of the American colonists in the Westminster Parliament.One of the famous protests taken by the Americans is the Boston Tea Party in 1773 where numerous crates containing tea that belonged to the British East India Company were destroyed aboard ships in Boston Harbor. As a result, the British government passed a series of acts popularly known as the Intolerable Acts in 1774, further fanning the growing oppression felt by the American colonists. Eventually, the American Revolution ensued beginning in as early as 1775 when British forces confiscated arms and arrested revolutionaries in Concord, thereby sparking the first hostilities after the Intolerable Acts were passed (Jensen, p.434). From 1775 to 1783, the colonies tha t formed their own independent states fought as one as the Thirteen Colonies of North America. Lasting for roughly eight years, the American Revolutionary War ended in the ratification of the Treaty of Paris which formally recognized the Independence of America from the British Empire. Between these years, the colonies underwent several changes which constitute part of the developments toward the framing of the Constitution (Bobrick, p. 88).One of these changes is the shift towards the acceptance of notable republican ideals, such as liberty and inalienable rights as core values, among several members of the colonies. Moreover, the republican ideals of the time saw corruption as the greatest of all threats to liberty. In essence, the concept of liberty during the founding era revolves around the liberation of the American colonies from the British Empire and the growing oppression it gave to the colonists through taxation burdens and a series of repressive acts.For the American colo nists, liberty meant the severing of its ties from the British government and the creation of its own independent nation recognized by other countries. The writing and ratification of the Constitution On the fourth of July in 1776, the second Continental Congress signed and officially adopted the United States Declaration of Independence which established the separation of the thirteen American colonies—the colonies which were at war with Great Britain from 1775—from the British Empire.Although others say that the founding moment of America is not on July 4 but two days earlier (Groom, http://independent. co. uk/arts-entertainment/books/review/the-fourth-of-july-and-the-founding-of-america-by-peter-de-bolla-455878. html), it remains a fact that there came a point in time when America finally declared its independence. The evolution of American political theory—especially that which is concerned with liberty—can be better understood during the confrontatio n over the writing and the ratification of the Constitution.In fact, the Declaration asserts that people have unalienable rights which include life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. The Articles of Confederation served as the constitution which governed the thirteen states as part of its alliance called the â€Å"United States of America†. After being ratified in 1781, the â€Å"United States of America† was brought as a political union under a confederate government in order to defend better the liberties of the people and of each state. Meaning, each state retained its independence and sovereignty despite being politically held together as part of the union.However, the Articles were not without opposition and criticisms from several notable political thinkers of the time. For example, James Madison saw several main flaws in the Articles of Confederation that were alarming, or threatened the very existence and purpose of the Articles first and foremost. For one, Madison was concerned about the dangers posed by the divided republics or â€Å"factions† given that their interest may stand in conflict to the interests of others. Madison argues in The Federalist, specifically in â€Å"Federalist No.10,† that in order to guard the citizens from the dangers posed by these individuals who have contradicting interests, a large republic should be created, a republic that will safeguard the citizens from the possible harms brought by other states. It is likewise important to note that the union is not a homogenous group of citizens with the same political inclinations. Madison also argues that for the government to become effective it needs to be a hybrid of a national and a federal constitution.The government should be balanced in the sense that it should be federal in some aspects and republican in others instead of giving more weight to each separate state over the larger republic. In his â€Å"Federalist No. 39,† Madison prop oses and describes a republic government guided by three fundamental principles: the derivation of the government’s legitimate power through the consent of the people, representatives elected as administrators in the government, and a limitation on the length of the terms of service rendered by the representatives (Kobylka and Carter, p.191). Madison also pointed out in â€Å"Federalist No. 51† that there should be checks and balances in the government, specifically among the judicial, legislative and the executive branches. The judiciary, therefore, is at par with the other two inasmuch as each of the other two are at par with one another. Giving one of the three more powers disables the other two to check if that branch is still functioning within its perimeters.As a result, the more powerful branch becomes a partisan branch which consequently creates dangers to the liberties of the people. Another important part of the evolution of American political theory is the c ontention raised by Patrick Henry. In a letter sent to Robert Pleasants in January 18, 1773, Patrick Henry sees the relationship between the new government and the institution of slavery as a contradiction precisely because while the new government is said to be founded on liberty, there the evil that is slavery persisted under the new government.During those times, slavery was not yet abolished and that the new government was unable to meet the challenge of living up to its roles and foundations by failing to address the institution of slavery and demolishing it altogether. Moreover, Henry understood the efforts of secession from the hands of England were a matter of freedom or slavery, which can also be looked upon as a question of either a freedom from or a continuation of tax slavery from the British.While Madison was part of the â€Å"Federalists† who were supporting the ratification of the Constitution, the â€Å"Anti-Federalists† apparently argued against its ra tification. It was Patrick Henry who led the group in criticizing the contents of the proposed Constitution. For instance, Henry argued that the phrase â€Å"We the People† in the Preamble of the Constitution was misleading primarily because it was not necessarily the people who agreed and created the proposed Constitution but the representatives of each participating state.Thus, Henry argues that the Preamble should instead read as â€Å"We the States† which in turn delegated power to the union. Another argument of the Anti-Federalists is the claim that the central government and, therefore, the central power might result to a revival of the monarchic type of rule reminiscent of the British Empire which the Patriots fought. The fear is that, by delegating a considerable amount of power to the central government, the liberties of the individual states and the people are weakened as a result.Nevertheless, the Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787 and later rati fied in each of the state conventions held. The anti-federalists share a significant role in strengthening some of the points of the Constitution through the succeeding amendments. The first ten amendments to the Constitution are popularly known as the Bill of Rights; it is largely influenced by the arguments of the anti-federalists. For the most part, the Bill of Rights aimed to guarantee that Congress shall not create laws which stand against the rights and liberties of the citizens of the nation.In effect, the Bill of Rights limits the power of the federal government in order to secure the liberties of the people in the United States. In â€Å"Federalist No. 84,† Alexander Hamilton argues against the Bill of Rights for the reason that the American citizens will not have to necessarily surrender their rights as a result of the ratification of the Constitution and, thus, the protection of the rights through the Bill is unnecessary. Moreover, Hamilton also argues that creatin g a Bill of Rights would effectively limit the rights of the people since those that are not listed in the Bill will not be considered as rights.In response to the argument, the Ninth Amendment to the Constitution was introduced and ratified later on. The amendment specifically states that the rights of the people are not to be limited to those which are listed in the Constitution. As it can be observed, the time before and during the ratification of the Constitution and the succeeding amendments made reflect how the people at the time sought to protect the liberties that they have realized and gained after the American Revolution and the defeat of the British Empire.Moreover, the debates at that time revolved around the issue of what to do with the liberties gained and how to secure them for the coming generations. One side—the Anti-Federalists—argues that the central government weakens the independence and sovereignty of the states as well as the rights and liberties of the people. The other side—the Federalists—argues that the Constitution will help preserve and strengthen the Union. Modern debates In the years that followed, debates over the interpretation of the Constitution, the role of the government and the place of the individual in American society have escalated.In his essay â€Å"Resistance to Civil Government† (popularly known as â€Å"Civil Disobedience†) first published in 1849, Henry David Thoreau asserts that the people should not simply remain passive and allow the government to be an agent of injustice. Much of Thoreau’s political beliefs eventually follow that same philosophy. In his work Walden published in 1854, Thoreau attempts to live a life of solitude in a cabin, away from the reaches of the society. In one of his days in Walden, Thoreau was arrested for the charge of not paying his taxes. His defense was that he refuses to pay federal taxes to a government that tolerates slavery.In ess ence, the fact that Thoreau decided to stay in solitude for approximately two years (although the contents of Walden was made to appear as though all the events happened within just a year) signifies his decision not to conform to the dictates of the society. On the contrary, Thoreau lived a life of liberty, free to do anything that he chooses without the institutions of society restraining him. The same sentiment—non-conformity or disobedience to the dictates of the society, especially the government—echoes through in Thoreau’s other work, which is â€Å"Civil Disobedience†.Thoreau asserts that â€Å"the only obligation which I have a right to assume is to do at any time what I think [is] right† (Thoreau, http://sniggle. net/Experiment/index. php? entry=rtcg#p04). That passage, along with the rest of â€Å"Civil Disobedience† and its theme in general, implies that people have an inherent liberty, which is the liberty to do any time what the y think is right. Taken altogether in the context of the concept of liberty, Thoreau seems to suggest that people ought to disobey a government that oppresses other people since each individual has inalienable rights that nobody can take away, not even the government.In the face of oppression such as slavery (which was still very much a part of America within twenty years after the ratification of the original Constitution since the issue of slavery was a very delicate and contentious matter during the Philadelphia Convention), Thoreau even suggested that Abolitionists should not only confine themselves with the mere thought of abolishing slavery but resisting the instructions of the government such as paying taxes.Thus, as a reading of Thoreau’s works would suggest, to have liberty is to act upon crucial issues instead of passively allowing contentious actions of the government to thrive and continue. I cannot help but think that Thoreau’s concept of liberty is someth ing that is absolute, which I also take to mean as confined only within one’s disposition instead of being limited by the government. Moreover, since Thoreau suggests that liberty is doing any time what one thinks is right an individual should first know if what he or she thinks is indeed right instead of being wrong.Charles Madison notes that Thoreau was heavily concerned with the â€Å"ever pressing problem of how one might earn a living and remain free† (Madison, p. 110). I cannot help but begin to think that Thoreau attempts at embodying and enacting his individualistic beliefs. As Leigh Kathryn Jenco argues, â€Å"The theory and practice of democracy fundamentally conflict with Thoreau’s conviction in moral autonomy and conscientious action† (Jenco, p.355); democracy is essentially the rule of the majority which consequently ignores the decisions of the minority. However, I think that much of Thoreau’s thoughts were heavily influenced by the c ircumstances during his time. His aversion towards the imposed taxation policy of the government stems from the fact that the government at that time still tolerates slavery which is directly against an individual’s liberty.Thoreau’s insight on the perceived conflict between the liberties being upheld by the Constitution and the actual state of the government during his time points us to the ideal that the people are sovereign because the people is the ultimate source of power of the government. If it is indeed the case that the Constitution upholds the rights of individuals including the right to liberty, it seems appropriate to consider as well why slavery at that time was not immediately abolished entirely especially at the time when the Constitution was ratified.In fact, it was only in 1865 under the Thirteenth Amendment—about 80 years after the original Constitution was adopted—when slavery was legally abolished and when Congress was given the power to finally enforce abolition. During the time when slavery was not yet abolished and immediately after the original Constitution was ratified, it can be said that not all citizens living in America were given full liberties. Several people were still laboring as slaves to their American masters.That is perhaps an often neglected piece of history that undermines the spirit of creating a Constitution and a government that will uphold the rights of the people. The pre-American Revolutionary war, the founding era, the ratification of the original Constitution, the creation of the Bill of Rights and the other succeeding amendments to the Constitution—all these stand as testimonies to the evolution of American political thought. The concept of liberty has played an important role in the development of the federal government and the Constitution.Although the history of American political thought might reveal that the attainment of liberty through the years has never been a smooth jo urney, contemporary America has reaped a large amount of benefits from the sacrifices and ideas of the Founding Fathers and all the people who lived and died during those times. Some might even argue that liberty is yet to be truly attained in today’s American society. But if liberty is yet to be attained in practice, how is it possible that people are given the right to air their grievances before the government?How is it possible that people have the liberty to do as they please so long as what they do does not conflict with what is legal? In any case, the present American Constitution guarantees the liberty of the people and that there are institutions which seek to promote and guard that important right. Had it been the case that the early Americans swallowed everything that the British Empire throw in their way and that the Founding Fathers abandoned the creation and amendment of the Constitution, the United States of America would not have been the land of the free and the home of the brave.Works Cited Bobrick, Benson. Fight for Freedom: The American Revolutionary War. 1st ed. New York, NY: Atheneum, 2004. Groom, Nick. â€Å"The Fourth of July and the Founding of America, by Peter De Bolla†. 2007. Independent. Co. Uk. October 16 2008. . Hamilton, Alexander, James Madison, and John Jay. The Federalist, on the New Constitution. 1787. October 18, 2008 . Jenco, Leigh Kathryn. â€Å"Thoreau’s Critique of Democracy. † The Review of Politics 65. 3 (2003): 355-81. Jensen, Merrill. The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution 1763-1776. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, 2004. Kobylka, Joseph F. , and Bradley Kent Carter. â€Å"Madison, The Federalist, & the Constitutional Order: Human Nature & Institutional Structure. † Polity 20.2 (1987): 190-208. Madison, Charles. â€Å"Henry David Thoreau: Transcendental Individualist. † Ethics 54. 2 (1944): 110-23. Sargent, Mark L. â€Å"The Conservative Covenant: The Rise of the Mayflower Compact in American Myth. † The New England Quarterly 61. 2 (1988): 233-51. Thoreau, Henry David. â€Å"Resistance to Civil Government†. 1849. October 18 2008. . â€Å"Virginia Records Timeline: 1553-1743†. The Library of Congress. October 17 2008. . American politics One of the best characteristics of the US political system today is this particular feature: the presence of a socio-cultural and socio-political atmosphere that encourages and promotes the right of the individual to vote and the right to suffrage. This is considered as a positive aspect of the US political system. Not all of the countries and their respective political system make room for this rather delicate matter, to which the balance of power hangs and to which the fate of the country and its socio economic and socio political stability rests.The US political system should not change this particular aspect and on the contrary, manage to find ways on how to make this particularly enviable characteristic of the US political system develop more into something that lessens and lessens the chances and situations that limits or prohibits its citizens to vote and is not threatened by the possibilities of being corrupted by the politicians themselves.An important part of the praise-wor thy characteristic of the US political system to support the right for suffrage and encourage a population that is willing to go to voting precincts and vote and choose their own leader as part of the exercise of the democratic country they all live in is the fact that the right to vote is centered and is promoted not only among true blooded American citizens, but also to immigrants who are granted citizenship.This is important because this goes to show that the US' political system did not renege on its promise embedded on the towering facade of the Liberty Statue about bringing in and welcoming people from different cultures with open arms and giving them an equal treatment especially in the aspect which in other countries maybe a very delicate matter altogether – the right to vote.In the US, protection and promotion of the right to vote has been widely supported that politicians themselves are becoming â€Å"increasingly aware of the voting-bloc power of the immigrants (B ray 19)† that they â€Å"are offering meaningful choices and reforms to immigrant voters (Bray 19)† as well. One of the positive characteristics of the US political system is the consistent inclusion of the consideration for and fighting for the exercise and preservation of the human rights.Yes, it is true that the United States, as a country, has been the place where great battles on human rights were fought. The Klu Kux Klan reminds the world about the extent of racism in the United States. Isn’t it the same country that was divided and shed the blood of their countrymen because they do not see eye to eye with regards to the issue of liberating former African American slaves that the white people own? These are all important points that prove the problem of human rights in the US, especially during its earlier, younger years.But more important than these historical notes is the fact that it was through these experiences that heroes, like Abraham Lincoln and oth er fighters for human rights, were given the time to shine their brightest and influence not just the country, but the world about important socio-cultural values and the significance of human rights. Despite the times of troubles, the political system of the country has shown through the years that it is capable of learning and integrating inside the system the wisdom and knowledge lifted from previous experiences so that the system could be better in the end.Today, the protection of human rights in the United States is all the more highlighted and magnified, especially when news in Africa and from other countries tell the tales of individuals who died not being able to enjoy the most basic human rights, and leaving behind friends and family members who are still under the threat of having their human rights taken from them and violated in front of them.Their own political system is not powerful enough to protect them from this kind of atrocity that is still very much alive in many parts of the world even today. It is indeed very reassuring to know that the US political system features important aspects that can guarantee the exercise and protection of human rights, not just the rights of American citizens in the US but also the human rights of other people if the US political system can extend help for this cause as they did in the past like what they did in 1973 (Liang-Fenton 151).One of the problematic aspects of the US political system is the power of political appointments. It is considered as one of the â€Å"anxieties† haunting civil service as far back as the formative years of the National Commission on the Public Service (Bowles 239). This is something that is considered as problematic and is a characteristic that leans more on the negative side than on the positive side.This is because of the fact that political appointments are largely based on the whim of politicians who often use political appointments, either as leverage so that the poli tician can manipulate the exercise and flow of power and influence, or as a way/means for the politician to return the favor he or she owes to private individuals who, in one way or another extended help or assistance to the politician and in the process someone to whom the politician is owed to. In both cases, it is reflected how the power for political appointment is becoming more and more vulnerable to being utilized as a tool for used for the wrong reasons.An important change correcting this problematic situation is the limitation of political appointments to just a handful of aides that the politician will have to work with everyday. While it is true that the truly capable leader is capable of willing with different types of people and can function as a team player even if surrounded by team mates who the politician did not choose, there are significant benefits that comes out of letting the elected leader pick at least his core team. It follows that if the electorate trusts th e leader that they voted, they will trust the people whom the elected official trusts in return.In this line of thought, it now comes that political appointments should be limited to the immediate staff of the politician and no greater than that. Besides, the elected official was not elected to personally handpick every other civil servant. The current power for political appointments should be diminished and have the civil service system handle the filling of government positions so that the truly deserving individuals are placed in government positions without the bias from politicians who may exercise their powers incorrectly.It is quite unclear or uncertain yet in which particular part of the history the United States and its political system has actually began to become a hegemon, although John Agnew seemed to give the readers an idea akin to the amalgamation of several different factors leading to this reality of what is now known as the US hegemony on political, as well as ec onomic and even cultural spheres (Agnew 53).What is now clear today is that the United States has taken the role of the global hegemon, the US politics and the US system dictating and influencing heavily the course of action that many aspects of the present day globalized world has taken collectively. While it has its perks and positive features that the country and its people can and have enjoyed, this aspect of the US political system is something that causes problems and is more of a disadvantage than advantage.It is more of a negative characteristic than it is a positive characteristic because of what the hegemon role brings inside the country and towards it people – particularly, death by many US citizens which is often not morally or ethically justified. Take for example, the wars and armed conflict that the US has committed itself in fighting because of its self righteous role that comes out of being a hegemon.It wants to show the world that the country will be the lea der in fighting ideas like terrorism and how it physically manifests by bringing US soldiers to far off countries like Afghanistan and Iraq. These countries are turning out to be modern day version of Vietnam because of the continuous increase in casualties among US citizens who are fighting people from other culture and nation and carrying with them either very vague or very generalized ideas of the reason of war per se.The country should instead be content in the exercise of the limitation on trying to be the leader at everything with, at times, unreasonable sense of self-righteousness that it is doing more harm than good to the people of the country for which the US political system should serve in the first place, like making the US and its citizens prime targets of hate campaigns instigated by non Americans who detest the state of US hegemony.Works Cited Agnew, John A. Hegemony: The New Shape of Global Power. University of Chicago Press, 2005. Bowles, Nigel. The Government and Politics of the United States. Palgrave Macmillan, 1993. Bray, Ilona. Becoming a US Citizen: A Guide to Law, Exam and Interview. NOLO, 2008. Liang-Fenton, Debra. Implementing US Human Rights Policy: Agendas, Policies, and Practices. United States Institute of Peace Press (USIP), 2004. American Politics The United States Congress is composed of the Senate, the House of Representatives, and Committees. The Senate consists of 100 members, two from each state, regardless of population or area, elected by the people in accordance with the 17th Amendment to the Constitution (Johnson). The members include the Senate President, President pro tempore, Majority/Minority leaders, and whips. The House of Representatives consist of 435 members, which include the Speaker, Majority Leader, Minority Leader, and whips, elected every two years from among the 50 states, distributed to their total populations (Johnson).There are different kinds of Committees in the United States Congress: Standing Committees, ad hoc committees, conference committees, and House Rules committees. According to Johnson, the Article 1, Section 1 of the United States Constitution states that only the Congress has the power to make laws and to write all the laws that are required to make the Constitution into implementation. The Congress has also the constitutional power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce. It has the sole authority to raise, finance and regulate forces of the military units and to declare war.Moreover, Congress can alter the number of justices on the Supreme Court and can ascertain which cases the federal courts can hear by establishing limitations on their jurisdictions. It is Congress that played a role in the establishment of the departments, agencies, and bureaus that cover the majority of the executive branch. Most sources of legislation and proposed drafts of bills are conceived by a Member but may also come from various interest groups and private citizens and the President.These sources may come from the election campaign during which the Member had promised, if elected, to introduce legislation on a particular subject (Johnson). In addition, the executive communication has turned into a source of legislative proposals, usually in the form of a message or letter from a member of the President’s Cabinet, the head of an independent agency, or the President himself (Johnson). These legislative proposals are then forwarded to Congress with a request for their enactment (Johnson). In the Senate, a Senator usually introduces a bill or resolution (Johnson).If there is no objection, it is read by title and referred to the appropriate committee and is placed on the Calendar (Johnson). In the House of Representatives, the bill is assigned its legislative number and then referred to the appropriate committee. A committee will then ask the input of the relevant departments and agencies about a bill (Johnson). The committee may schedule a date for public hearings if the bill is of sufficient importance (Johnson). The subcommittee will consider the bill in a session, referred to as the markup session, after hearings are completed.Bills are read for amendment in committee by section and members may offer amendments (Johnson). Bills will be given consider ation by the entire Members of the House with adequate opportunity for debate and the proposing of amendments (Johnson). After passage or rejection of the bill by the House, the bill goes to the Senate for consideration. Votes on final passage may be taken by the electronic voting system. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall be presented to the United States President before it becomes a Law (Johnson).If the President approves the bill, he/she signs it and usually writes the word approved and the date (Johnson). If the President does not approve the bill, he/she shall return it, with his/her objections to the House and proceed to reconsider it (Johnson). When a law has been enacted, it shall be made known to the people who are to be bound by it (Johnson). Reference Johnson, C. W. How Our Laws Are Made. Retrieved May 22, 2009, from http://www. senate. gov/reference/resources/pdf/howourlawsaremade. pdf.