The Importance of the Dance in A Dolls House Essay -- A Dolls House E

The Importance of the Dance in A Dolls House Dancing is a beautiful form of expression that reveals a good address about a person in a matter of minutes. Characters that dance in plays and novels usually flash some sort of underlying meaning pertaining to their story, glitter light on themselves, other characters, and the movement of the action. In Ibsens A Dolls House, Noras performance of the tarantella summarizes the plot of the entire play. Take, for example, Torvalds attitude towards Noras offbeat movements. Torvald plays the piano for Nora initially, but becomes so frustrated with Noras dancing that he abandons his tune and attempts to re-teach Nora the tarantella. This simple confrontation reflects the main action Torvald is the unity who provides Nora with music and who had previously taught Nora how to dance, just like he is the one who gives her a home and has sculpted her into his ideal wife. Nora cannot dance rhythmically to Torvalds song because both her lies and Torvalds strong belief in app...

Breast Feeding vs Formula Essay -- Comparing Breast Feeding and Formu

Breast-feeding is nutritionally, emotionally and physically superior for a m another(prenominal) and her child. Human breast milk is not standard nor is it interchangeable with cows milk. It is a dynamic fluid that changes in composition to meet the needs of the baby as it grows ( cock-a-hoop your Baby... Diet. par. 10). Breast milk contains growth factors and antibodies which stimulate the growing baby and protect it from illness such as diarrhea, ear infections, rashes, allergies, asthma, skin problems, pneumonia, respiratory illness and other serious illnesses. Breast-feeding also improves a babys chance of remaining healthy. These antibodies are not found in formula. They can not be sustained. suck babies are also neurodevelopmentally more advanced than those fed formula. This is because the ingredients found in breast milk promote brain development. (Neifiert, pars. 5 &7) Breast-feeding is the preferred mode for feeding babies because it offers many benefits for both mothers a nd babies.There are many advantages for babies who are breast-fed. Babies can digest breast milk easily because the proteins and curds in it are softer than those in cows milk. The proteins in breast milk destroy harmful bacteria and help protect a baby against infection (Giving your Baby... Diet. par 20). A breast-fed baby will have loose bowel movements that are easy to pass. Manufacturers do attempt to lower the curd tension in formula so that it will act as breast milk does. They do this by producing formula that has a higher whey content than cows milk. scarce it is impossible to exactly replicate human milk. Because of the gentleness of breast milk in a babies system, constipation is rare in breast fed infants. some other advantage for breast-fed ch... ...e. 19 May 2003.http//proquest.umi.com/pqweb? Georgieff, Michael K. Taking a Rational Approach to the Choice of Formula. A Thomson Healthcare Company. Aug. 2001 48 Health Reference Center-Academic. capital of Michigan Chr istian cultivate Lib. , Lansing MI. 19 May 2003.http//www.infotrac.galegroup.com. Giving Your Baby an Ideal Diet. A Thomson Healthcare Company. 2001 79. Health Reference Center- Academic. Lansing Christian School Lib. , Lansing, MI. 13 May 2003. http//www.infortrac.galegroup.com.Gupta, Sanjay M.D. Of Brains and Breast Milk. Time. 20 May 2002 92.Neifert, Marianne. The Advantages of Breast-Feeding. McKesson Health Solutions LLC. 2001 15. Health Reference Center Academic. Lansing Christian School Lib. , Lansing, MI. 13 May 2003.http//infotrac.galegroup.com.Sheehy, Maura. Breast-Feeding 911. Parents. July 2001 149-150.

Use of Disquietude and Pleasure in Oedipus the King :: Oedipus the King Oedipus Rex

Use of Disquietude and Pleasure in Oedipus the King At the very core of Sophocles tragedy, Oedipus the King, lies emotional confusion. Sophocles measuredly creates within his readers this sense of emotional confusion and self-awareness through his use of both disquietude and pleasure. When he grows up, unknowing of his adoption, he discovers his doomed fate from an Oracle. Seeking to take out it, he flees from Colonus. Once upon the road, Oedipus discovers his path blocked by a man, whom he perceives to be a robber. He kills this man, who turns out to be his father, and unknowingly fulfills the first erupt of the prophecy. Soon, he comes to Thebes, which is being terrorized by a terrible monster, the Sphinx. The Sphinx wanders the streets surrounding the city, asking travelers an unanswered riddle. Oedipus encounters the Sphinx, and answers its riddle, causing the Sphinx to kill herself in disbelief. The citizens of Thebes, who have recently found themselves kingless, describ e Oedipus king and give him Queen Iocast? for his wife as a reward. The couple lives together happily and produces four children. Some years later, the city is beset by a terrible plague. It is prophesied that the only way to cure the city is to find the killer of the previous king, and bring him to justice. Oedipus, who wishes to solve the citys peril, relentlessly seeks out the answer to the problem. He soon discovers the hideous truth he has killed his father, married his mother, and fathered her children. He returns home to find that his wife/mother has committed suicide, and, unable to deal with the reality of this short reality, he takes the broaches from her gown and gouges his eyes out. The gruesome details of this story make for several examples of disquietude. The most obvious example occurs when Oedipus gouges his eyes out with Iocastes broaches. This scene is vividly described by the Chorus of Theban Elders, Deep, how deep you drew it then, hard archer, At a dim fearf ul range, and brought dear glory down (name of generator and page ). Not only is this scene physically disturbing, but it is emotionally disturbing due to the dramatic irony. Oedipus, before this, was blinded by his intellectual arrogance. Now, he has been humbled by fate and sees his mistakes, but is physically blind. Along with this example, there are two other examples of disturbing physical events.

Clarissa or The History of a Young Lady :: Clarissa History of a Young Lady

Clarissa or The History of a Young Lady In the Johnson age there are many popular writers. One of these authors is Samuel Richardson, who was a novelist. His more or less popular novels were Pamela and Clarissa, which are both constructed of a series of letters. Clarissa, however, was regarded as angiotensin-converting enzyme of his most popular European novels. His masterpiece, Clarissa, or the History of a Young Lady, star of the greatest European novels, was published in 1747-8 (Richardson, 1). When Richardson wrote Clarissa his intention was to write a novel of a series of letters that were written by an unskilled author. This volume contains 537 letters written by various characters in the novel. Because the book is so long I could not read the whole thing nor have I ever read it before. As a result I can not say a lot about it. Because I find it is a little hard to read I was not able to read as much as I would have like to in the quadruplet hours that we wer e to set aside to read the book. I did, however, manage to read the first eight letters in the novel. The first letter was written to Clarissa Harlowe from her good jock Anna Howe. This letter is used to introduce the reader to the problems that have been going on in the Harlowe home that lead to Clarissa being the topic of gossip. The letters that follow this one are from Clarissa to Anna and they explain what had happened. The trouble begins when Mr. Lovelace begins to visit the Harlowe home it is believed that he is there to court the eldest daughter. However, this does not work out and he then decides the he would like to date the younger daughter, who is Clarissa. This is not well liked by her brother because Mr. Lovelace was his enemy all through college and there is now a grizzle between the two. As a result, Clarissas brother and Mr. Lovelace get into a fight and Clarissas brother is injured. It is because of this that no one else in the family cares for him anymore either. However, this does not stop him from engage Clarissa.

Decriminalization of Marijuana in Canada Essay -- legalization of marij

Marijuana is currently a hot topic of debate throughout Canada, and has been for the past few years. Marijuana was starting line banned in 1923 under the Opium and Drug Act, but since 1997 the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act have controlled it. In 2000, over 30,000 Canadians were charged with sustainion of cannabis. Currently, the marijuana laws are non enforced equally across the country, which has prompted the interest in changing the laws or possibly decriminalizing marijuana. Also, those convicted of marijuana related crimes usually dont go to jail, but they do receive a criminal record. There are currently two committees researching the possibility of legalizing marijuana in Canada. One committee is the Special Senate Committee on Illegal Drugs, and the other is The Ho subroutine of Commons Special Committee on the Non-Medical Use of Drugs. The Senate committee reported in September of 2002, and stated that marijuana is not a gateway drug. They also reported that marij uana should be treated more like tobacco or alcohol. The House of Commons committees report stated that although marijuana is unhealthy, the punishments for having even a small amount of marijuana are disproportionably harsh. The House is promoting the decriminalization of marijuana to make it legal to possess an amount of marijuana not exceeding 30 grams, which is about one ounce. These two committees seem to come to the same conclusion that marijuana is placed in the same class as more unverbalized-core drugs such as heroin and cocaine, when it should not be, as they view marijuana as a safer drug. As stated previously, the Senate states that marijuana is not a gateway drug. A gateway drug is the term used to identify drugs that are not narcotics, but their use will lead the user down the path to harder drugs like heroin.Support for the Decriminalization of MarijuanaThere is actually a political party in Canada called the Marijuana Party of Canada, and it has many supporters. The se supporters believe that the solitary(prenominal) route to take is full decriminalization of marijuana, which is not likely to happen. One argument of these supporters is that the current penalties for marijuana possession are too harsh. Realistically, there is not chance that marijuana will ever be completely decriminalized in Canada, as the effects from this would be damaging to Canadas relationship to ... ...ere growing more than 50 plants, the maximum sentence would be 14 years in jail.ConclusionBoth sides of the make out make valid points, but I think anyone would agree that the opposition to the decriminalization of marijuana has a stronger case. After fighting such a hard war against drugs, it doesnt make any sense to legalize small amounts of marijuana, although 30 grams is not that small. Canada needs to realize that the repercussions of decriminalized marijuana would be monumental, not only to the citizens of Canada, but also to the relationship that Canada shares wit h the United States. I do not think that Canada will ever decriminalize marijuana, even though some separate of government support it, the rest realize the implications. Marijuana is a gateway drug that has proven health hazards. You are decriminalizing marijuana, but at the same fourth dimension running campaigns against cigarette smoking. That does not make any sense whatsoever. Im sure that this issue will die out in the neighboring few months or over the next year, or, it might be an issue in Canada for years to come. Either way, I dont see marijuana being decriminalized anytime in the near future.

Decriminalization of Marijuana in Canada Essay -- legalization of marij

Marijuana is currently a hot topic of debate through kayoed Canada, and has been for the past hardly a(prenominal) years. Marijuana was first banned in 1923 under the Opium and Drug Act, but since 1997 the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act have controlled it. In 2000, over 30,000 Canadians were charged with possession of marihuana. Currently, the marijuana laws argon non enforced equally across the country, which has prompted the interest in changing the laws or possibly decriminalizing marijuana. Also, those convicted of marijuana related crimes usually dont go to jail, but they do receive a criminal record. There are currently two committees researching the possibility of legalizing marijuana in Canada. One committee is the exceptional Senate Committee on Illegal Drugs, and the other is The House of honey oil Special Committee on the Non-Medical Use of Drugs. The Senate committee reported in September of 2002, and express that marijuana is not a gateway drug. They also repor ted that marijuana should be treated more like tobacco or alcohol. The House of Commons committees report stated that although marijuana is unhealthy, the punishments for having even a small amount of marijuana are disproportionably harsh. The House is promoting the decriminalization of marijuana to put on it legal to possess an amount of marijuana not exceeding 30 grams, which is about one ounce. These two committees seem to come to the same conclusion that marijuana is placed in the same class as more hard-core drugs such as heroin and cocaine, when it should not be, as they view marijuana as a safer drug. As stated previously, the Senate states that marijuana is not a gateway drug. A gateway drug is the term used to identify drugs that are not narcotics, but their use will lead the user down the path to harder drugs like heroin.Support for the Decriminalization of MarijuanaThere is actually a political party in Canada called the Marijuana Party of Canada, and it has many suppor ters. These supporters believe that the only route to take is full decriminalization of marijuana, which is not likely to happen. One debate of these supporters is that the current penalties for marijuana possession are too harsh. Realistically, there is not chance that marijuana will ever be completely decriminalized in Canada, as the effects from this would be damaging to Canadas relationship to ... ...ere growing more than 50 plants, the maximum sentence would be 14 years in jail. closing curtainBoth sides of the issue make valid points, but I think anyone would agree that the opposition to the decriminalization of marijuana has a stronger case. After fighting such a hard war against drugs, it doesnt make any sense to legalize small amounts of marijuana, although 30 grams is not that small. Canada needs to realize that the repercussions of decriminalized marijuana would be monumental, not only to the citizens of Canada, but also to the relationship that Canada shares with the Un ited States. I do not think that Canada will ever decriminalize marijuana, even though some parts of government support it, the rest realize the implications. Marijuana is a gateway drug that has proven health hazards. You are decriminalizing marijuana, but at the same time running campaigns against cigarette smoking. That does not make any sense whatsoever. Im sure that this issue will die out in the next few months or over the next year, or, it might be an issue in Canada for years to come. Either way, I dont see marijuana being decriminalized anytime in the near future.

Jk Rowling

Although she writes under the pen name J. K. Rowling her name when her first Harry Potter book was published was simply Joanne Rowling. Her publishing firm Bloomsbury feared that the target audience of young boys might be reluctant to buy books written by a female author, and requested that she use two initials, alternatively than reveal her first name. Born on 31 July 1965 in Yate, Gloucestershire, England She attended St Michaels Primary School. Her headmaster, Alfred Dunn, has been suggested as the inspiration for the Harry Potter headmaster Albus Dumbledore. She attended tributary school at Wyedean School and College.Rowling has said of her adolescence, Hermione A bookish, know-it-all Harry Potter character is loosely based on me. Shes a caricature of me when I was eleven, which Im not especially proud of. Rowling read for a BA in French and Classics at the University of Exeter, and after a year of study in Paris, she moved to London to grow as a researcher and bilingual sec retary for Amnesty International. In 1990, while she was on a train trip from Manchester to London, the subject for a floor of a young boy attending a school of wizardry came fully formed into her mind.She told The Boston Globe that I really dont know where the idea came from. It started with Harry, then all these characters and situations came flooding into my head. Rowling then moved to Porto, Portugal to teach English as a foreign language. 25 While there, on 16 October 1992, she married Portuguese television journalist Jorge Arantes. Their child, Jessica Isabel Rowling Arantes was born on 27 July 1993 in Portugal. 36 They separated in November 1993. 36HYPERLINK l cite_note-3637In December 1993, Rowling and her daughter moved to be near her sis in Edinburgh, Scotland. 18 During this period Rowling was diagnosed with clinical depression, and contemplated suicide. 38 It was the feeling of her illness which brought her the idea of Dementors, soul-sucking creatures introduced in the third book. 39 In 1995, Rowling finished her manuscript for Harry Potter and the Philosophers Stone on an old manual typewriter. The book was submitted to twelve publishing houses, all of which rejected the manuscript. 36 A year later she was finally given the green light (and a ? 1500 advance) by editor Barry Cunningham from Bloomsbury, a small British publishing house in London, England.Soon after, in 1997, Rowling received an ? 8000 grant from the Scottish Arts Council to enable her to move on writing. 49 The following spring, an auction was held in the United States for the rights to publish the novel, and was won by Scholastic Inc. , for $105,000. In June 1997, Bloomsbury published Philosophers Stone with an initial print-run of 1000 copies. v months later, the book won its first award, a Nestle Smarties mass Prize. In February, the novel won the prestigious British Book Award for Childrens Book of the Year, and later, the Childrens Book Award.

Power Struggles and the Strong Woman

Katherine Hui RAYMOND WATERS CWL320 30 November 2011 POWER STRUGGLES AND THE STRONG WOMAN Morning Glory, directed by Roger Mitchell, is a romantic comedy and a reification of sunrise television. It is heavily coated in a formula base plot the female promoter is faced with obstacles in which she must overcome to prove her worth to those who have doubted her scathe while simultaneously balancing her love interest. One of the most prominent archetypes in comedy is the satisfying woman archetype. The strong woman plays an outstanding role portraying power struggles, especially in the workplace.Becky Fuller, 28, is a high-energy and mere(a) assistant manufacturer. She quickly becomes a likable character in which the audience cannot help but root for. Through her struggles with pursuing her dreams of becoming an executive producer at the Today Show, Becky finds herself hired to revitalize a morning give in turmoil. end-to-end the movie she experiences struggles with herself, her network, and the male alazon Mike Pomeroy, a former discussion anchor acclaimed for his experience in covering real news.There is a parallel maturement between all the characters in the movie as healthful as the morning show itself. The movie begins with a date, visually framing Beckys obvious social ineptness and her overt dedication to work. Because of her job in earlyish morning news, the audience sees her on a 3p. m. d informal date with a marketing executive, whose job adds into the irony of the duo. Becky is chained to her phone and unable to talk some anything other than her work. She stumbles over her words and acts as if she were still a pubescent teenager on her firstborn of all date.The marketing executive immediately realizes her awkwardness and senselessness to remove herself from her job and quickly asks for the check. Here the audience sympathizes for Becky, seeing her struggle in trying to fulfill one of lifes basic ask companionship. The date is followed b y a montage of her daily routine in which we see Becky in her comfort zone in complete control of what she is fervent about work. The audience sees the contrast between her dedication with work and struggles ith men and is able to feel a sense of admiration and respect for the character. Although she lacks in macrocosm able to make social connections she makes up for in her devotion to her work. Becky is a highly dedicated to her job at Good Morning New Jersey. She is the first one in, last one out and knows a shitload more about news than someones whose daddy paid them to smoke bongs and talk semiology at Harvard. Becky is tipped off that she would be promoted to executive producer, something that she has pursued since she was 18.Instead she is laid off and expectantly replaced by a male who has more experience with an development from Harvard. This is a constant struggle in society today women are underrated and easily replaced in the work place. The strong women archetype se rves to prove society wrong through the diverting spirit theme. Although Becky is consistently faced with others doubt in her including her own mother she perseveres through the negativity as the strong woman and is inclined the opportunity as an executive producer on Daybreak, a perpetually fourth rated morning show at IBS.On Beckys first day she is already confronted with multiple complications her bosss lack of faith, the shows low morale, and its semi-talented staff. Quickly she proves that she posses the type of assertiveness and ardent attitude that Daybreak desperately needs, devising the executive decision to fire a long running co-anchor Paul McVee, the epitome of the conceitedness and one of the main reasons for the shows low morale. Becky again faces another(prenominal) challenge finding the perfect replacement. Daybreaks low budget forces Becky to find an unconventional way to hire a new anchor.Through her wit and mightiness to think on her feet she finds a loophol e in one of IBSs contracted and retired news anchors. Mike Pomeroy, the braggart male, is a world-renowned and respected television journalist. His opinion of morning television is far from low and is highly reluctant in having to co-anchor Daybreak, finally he is forced to accept the position due to his six million buck contract with IBS. Pomeroy refuses to cover anything un-newsworthy and becomes a constant struggle in Beckys effort to improve the show.Pomeroy disregards all of Beckys requests, even getting drunk sooner his first day at work, further conveying his role as the braggart male. Becky withstands anything that Pomeroy throws at her, paralleling her strength to his experience. Pomeroy compares morning entertainment to a worthless syrupy donut, in which Becky counters by comparing hard news to a boring bran muffin. Both characters finally come to reconciliation when they collaborate on their first breaking news story, covering the live arrest of New Jerseys governor o n charges of racketeering.Becky is elated and compares their breakthrough to a bran donut. She is faced with still another challenge improving Daybreaks ratings or having to face cancellation. One challenge that television faces today is the quality of entertainment. Often times ratings are ground on controversy and popular culture and the dumb-ing down of information to appease the commercial audience. Becky fully understands what viewers want and overlooks this issue, completely devoting herself into doing absolutely anything to increase ratings.Through the strong woman archetype Becky shows that she has a clear vision and proves to her co-workers that she has a concrete strategy and ability to meet the audiences needs. Her dedication rallys morale and ilk Lysistrata she is able to persuade her crew to be just as committed as she is. Becky performs miracles, introducing new segments and changing everything from the weather broadcast to their interviews. This progression is far ced paced, paralleling the shows increasing success.As Daybreaks ratings go up theyre able to gain access to more famous celebrities, which in turn increases ratings even more. The shows breaking point comes with Beckys and Pomeroys bran donut, signifying her achievement at Daybreak and her ability to overcome the tribulations of the male alazon through her strong will and perseverance. Throughout the plot Becky becomes romantically involved with Adam Bennett, another producer at IBS. Although Morning Glory is a romantic comedy, it touches lightly on Beckys kin with Adam, focusing more on her exchanges with Pomeroy.Expectantly, Becky struggles with removing herself from work while trying to build a relationship with her love interest. Her dedication to work is her Achilles heal as well as her inimitable strength. Adam is able to overlook her awkwardness, even to the point adoration. The shows successes and downfalls parallel with Beckys growth in her ability to carry a relationshi p. Towards the end of the movie, like with all romantic comedies, she is finally able to overlook her obsessions and succeed in overcoming her disability to make a romantic connection.The comic spirit seeks to exhibit strength in those who deserve a chance to exhibit greatness those who are overlooked by societys standards. In Morning Glory, Becky Fullers enduring strength, forceful determination, and self-belief transcends beyond any high profiled work experience or degree from Harvard. Daybreaks growth parallels with Beckys relationship with Mike Pomeroy as well the crews morale. Becky is a prime example of the strong woman archetype and she triumphs over her inner struggles as well as struggles with the higher forces of society.

Martin Bernal and describes Essay

shocking Athena is the works of Martin Bernal and describes the Afro-asiatic root of classical civilization in ancient Greece. Martin examines the perception of ancient Greece in relation to its African and Asiatic neighbours especially in West Europe. This occurred in the 18th century onwards and exhibits the denial by the western academia and the yield of the Greek culture on civilization. In his work Bernin does not support the Greek civilization as being founded by the Aryan settlers whose trace is Europe.He gives proves as to the arguments of the famous great Grecian thinkers akin Plato, Socrates and Aristotle that Phoenician civilization originally colonized Greece. In this basis he comes up with a surmise based on the methodology of these historians and this theory states that Greece was colonized by northern invaders with their existing colony established in Phoenicia. (Moore, 2001) He uses several examples to explain that countries of Africa like Egypt and those on the w est are being admired by prominent European leaders because of their historical backgrounds.The current Greek language spoken in classical Grecian world has its roots in the proto Greek language and influence from other Anatolian languages that were spoken nearby. The culture in Greece is believed to have been developed as a result of comparison of unity of elements. Bernam puts great emphasis on the elements of Africa that shaped the Grecian history. He compares the 19th and 20th century eurocentrism with the using of the western appropriation culture and its development.He argues that the western world influenced the Modern Greek language terming the contact between the indo European languages and the culturally influenced Egyptian and Semitic languages as very key in the determination of the advanced Grecian culture and language. He gives examples of some words being used in the modern language of Greece to have been from these origins. He estimates the introduction of the Gre ek alphabet to have been between the period 1800 and 1400 BC. (Moore, 2001) Bernal came to the conclusion that the relationship between ancient Greek and Egyptian influence should not be taken lightly.His background traces to the interests he had on Egypt since childhood and the inspirations by his father. He is further encouraged to take this direction by the discovery of the works of Cyrus Gordon and Astour. Afrocentrism which is now the most felt model in the North American primary and secondary schools has been noted to be the most operative and challenging developments in higher education systems and curriculums. Its a model which encompasses both multi cultural and Afro Hellenic orientations.This simply means that its grounded in pagan and cultural diversity and the aspect that it is attributed to Africa. In contrast with the black Athena which attributes the development of modern Greece to the western world, the Afrocentric model attributes it to be an abstract, intellectua l civilization which is grounded in the traditional orientations of western civilization. Bernals discovery of the black Athena is the modern thinking of how the Greek world came into being but has been criticized as not with clear reasons as afrocentric movement.His was of a different order that racist and anti Semitic scholars only showed the historical facts from the Bronze Age onwards making the culture of Greece to be a product of only Egyptians and Levantines. He argues that for the complete concealing of the origin of the Greek culture we need to consider the north of Athens and the medditerenian island of Crete, civilizations which took place in the third millennium. Bernals case is different from the afrocentric models because it rests upon on legend and myth. It relies upon the stories told by the ancient Greeks like Aristotle and Aristotle.He interprets these stories as the memories of the Egyptian and Phoenician developments. There is a critic about this except because we need to ask ourselves of what benefit is myths and legends? (Bernal, 1987) Bernal attributes archaeology, myth and linguistic borrowings as evidence to the development in Greece. The history and development of Greece is of very much importance to the culture adopted today in Greece. Without the historical base Bernal suggests that tracing of the Greek history and civilization would be very complicated.Bernal claims that approximately 30% of Greek is of Semitic origin, 20% from Egyptian origin and the rest from the ancient Greek origin. Critics however have suggested that his demonstrations is only based on the resemblance merely and not the principles of linguistic adaptation. Bernal takes the similarity of a few words and tries to generalize. The afro centric orientation is based on the western world and argues that linguistic development in Greek civilization has been natural like the development of any other language. (Bernal, 1987)The contention that the Egyptians were th e greatest civilization in history is critically opposed by the Afrocentrists. Afrocentrists view the Egyptians as only blacks who cannot contribute anything to the civilizations which took place especially in Greece. Bernal regarded the developments of Greeks like the scientific and mathematical orientations as very important movements. Its however criticized by the afrocentrics as a total disregard of the facts of chronology. Conclusion The black Athena and the afrocentric movements have had an influence to the history and civilizations of the current Grecian histories.In our guide of the two models we need to understand the fact that the current ancient civilization is as a result of amalgamation of the two models. Bernal in his book Black Athena The afroasiantic roots of Classical civilization addresses the issues which have made the Greek world today be the way it is. Reference Bernal, M. (1987) Black Athena Afroasiantic roots of Classical Civilization, Rutgers University pres s. Moore, D. (2001) Black Athena writes back, Duke University press.

Ganhi, King, and Mandela: What Made Non-Violence Work?

Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese explorer who started his voyage in Spain and was the first explorer to circumnavigate, meaning to travel each(prenominal) the around the world. He was killed on April 27, 1521 by the natives on the island of Cebu in the Philippines while many of his own manpower stayed on the boat despite knowing their superior was in trouble. The question being asked was whether or non this captain was worth defending. This question could be answered either way but in this essay we be going to argue that Magellan was non worth defending.Ferdinand Magellan was not worth defending because he was unorganized, he forced and threatened natives in the Philippines to convert to his religion of universality and lastly, he was bossy and could care less about the crewmembers needs. Magellan wasnt organized as a leader because during their voyage after they had crossed the Atlantic ocean and had sailed down the coast of what we now call the countries of Brazil and Arg entina, he noticed that the supplies might not last them the rest of their trip. Because of this Magellan put each crewmember on a limited about of food that they could fill each day.Many of the hands grew ill, were very unhappy with this decision and wanted to return home, but Magellan refused to listen to any of their needs. This shows that Magellan was not a very organized leader because he didnt bring enough food and supplies that could last for each and every crewmember during their many long years on sea. A mutiny was also organized against Magellan, and in self-defense he killed everyone who was against him including leaders and captains on the other ships. This shows he was not organized because if he was, his own men would not have gone against him and tried to kill him.The decision that Magellan made that changed his life was also a very important designer that could support the argument that he was not worth defending. Magellan was killed in the Philippines after he f orced all the natives to convert to Catholicism. Those who didnt were threatened just equal the village on Mactan that he burned down after they did not convert. If Magellan did not make that horrible decision he could have been with his remaining men as they completed the voyage. This decision he made shows he was probably not a very good leader, it also supports the reason he was norganized. Magellan should have made a better decision, which was to leave the natives alone in their home and try to accomplish his goal, which was to reach the Spice Islands. The fact that when the natives went up against Magellan and his men stayed in the ship knowing he was in danger shows his men disliked him and that he may of done other horrible things to them that we are not sensible of. The last explanation that can buoy support the argument on whether or not Magellan was worth defending was that he was very bossy, and careless of his mens need.The men on board played a very important role an d greatly helped him become the first leader to circumnavigate. Without the men, this might have not been possible. In the documents there is no evidence that shows he was ever thankful for them. We are also not given much information on the men who liked him and thought of him as a great leader. The documents just explain to us how he was bossy and didnt care about them. In papers D we are told how many of the men got very sick and their gums swelled up causing them to be unable to eat.In these documents we are not told Magellan was ever sharp-set or sick, that gives evidence that makes us predict he was selfish and kept the good food for himself and tried to keep only himself as healthy as possible. In conclusion, Ferdinand Magellan was once again, not worth defending. He was unorganized, made horrible decisions and was a very inconsiderate and selfish leader. The reasons explained above give evidence that can answer the question of whether or not Magellan worth defending.

Euthanasia Background Essay

* Whats Euthanasia? * The Pro-Life Alliance defines it as Any action or omission intended to end the life of a patient on the grounds that his or her life is non worth living. * The Voluntary Euthanasia auberge looks to the words Greek origins eu and thanatos, which together mean a nice death and say a modern definition is A ingenuous death brought about by a doctor providing drugs or an injection to bring a peaceful end to the decease process. * Three classes of euthanasia pot be identified passive euthanasia, doctor-assisted suicide and active euthanasia although not all groups would acknowledge them as valid terms.* What is physician-assisted suicide/physician aid in dying? * It is descriptively accurate and carries with it no misleading connotations. * Other contributors to this volume prefer the synonymous term physician-assisted suicide because it is technically accurate, and still others prefer physician aid in dying because it is relatively neutral. * Although sui cide bottomland be considered heroic or rational imagineing on setting and philosophical orientation, in oft American writing it is conflated with mental illness, and the term suggests the tragic self-destruction of a person who is not thinking clearly or acting rationally.Pros* Everyone has the near to mutter* The right of a competent, terminally ill person to avoid excruciating pain and embrace a timely and dignified death bears the sanction of register and is implicit in the concept of ordered liberty. * The exercise of this right is as central to personal autonomy and bodily integrity as rights safeguarded by this courtyards decisions relating to marriage, family relationships, procreation, contraception, child rearing and the refusal or termination of life-saving medical treatment. * In particular, this Courts recent decisions concerning the right to refuse medical treatment and the right to abortion instruct that a mentally competent, terminally ill person has a protect ed liberty inte symmetry in choosing to end intolerable anguish by bringing about his or her own death. * Patient suffering should be able to end their life.* At the Hemlock Society they get calls casual from desperate people who ar looking for someone like Jack Kevorkian to end their expires, which have lost all quality. * Americans should enjoy a right guaranteed in the European Declaration of Human Rights the right not to be forced to suffer. * It should be considered as much of a crime to force someone live that with justification does not wish to continue as it is to take life without consent. * What about palliative (end-of-life) care?* The assure for the emotional impact of assisted dying on physicians shows that euthanasia and assisted suicide are a far cry from being easier options for the caregiver than palliative care, as some critics of Dutch perform have suggested. * We wish to take a strong stand against the separation and opposition between euthanasia and assis ted suicide, on the one hand, and palliative care, on the other, that such critics have implied. There is no either-or with respect to these options. * Every appropriate palliative option available must be discussed with the patient and, if reasonable, tried onwards a request for assisted death can be accepted.* What about living wills?* Living wills can be used to refuse extraordinary, life-prolonging care and are effective in providing clear and convincing evidence that may be necessary under state statutes to refuse care after one becomes terminally ill. * A recent Pennsylvania case shows the power a living will can have. In that case, a Bucks County man was not given a feeding tube, even though his wife requested he receive one, because his living will, executed seven years prior, clearly stated that he did not want tube feeding or any other artificial invasive form of nutrition. * A living will provides clear and convincing evidence of ones wishes regarding end-of-life care.* Healthcare* Even though the various elements that make up the American healthcare system are becoming more watchful in ensuring that money is not wasted. * The cap that marks a zero-sum healthcare system is largely absent in the United States. * Considering the way we finance healthcare in the United States, it would be hard to make a case that there is a financial imperative compelling us to adopt physician-assisted suicide in an effort to save money so that others could benefit.Cons* There will be a slippery slope to legalized murder. * In a society as obsessed with the costs of health care and the principle of utility, the dangers of the slippery slope are far from fantasy. * Assisted suicide is a half-way house, a stop on the way to other forms of direct euthanasia, for example, for incompetent patients by advance directive or suicide in the elderly. So, too, is voluntary euthanasia a half-way house to nonvoluntary and nonvoluntary euthanasia. * If terminating life is a benefi t, the reasoning goes, why should euthanasia be limited only to those who can give consent? Why need we acquire for consent? * The Hippocratic Oath and Prohibition of Killing would make it impossible. * The prohibition against killing patients stands as the first promise of self-restraint sworn to in the Hippocratic Oath, as medicines primary taboo I will neither give a deadly drug to any torso if asked for it, nor will I make a suggestion to this effect.* In forswearing the giving of poison when asked for it, the Hippocratic physician rejects the view that the patients choice for death can make killing him right. * For the physician, at least(prenominal), human life in living bodies commands respect and reverenceby its very nature. As its respectability does not depend upon human agreement or patient consent, revocation of ones consent to live does not deprive ones living body of respectability. * The deepest ethical principle restraining the physicians power is not the autonomy or freedom of the patient neither is it his own compassion or good intention. Rather, it is the dignity and mysterious power of human life itself, and therefore, as well as what the Oath calls the purity and holiness of life and art to which he has sworn devotion.* There is excessively Government involvement in end-of-life decisions. * Cases like Schiavos touch on basic constitutional rights, such as the right to live and the right to collect process, and consequently there could very well be a legitimate role for the federal government to play. * Theres a precedentas a result of the highly publicized deaths of infants with disabilities in the 1980s, the federal government enacted Baby Doe Legislation, which would withhold federal funds from hospitals that withhold lifesaving treatment from newborns ground on the expectation of disability. * The medical community has to have restrictions on what it may do to people with disabilities weve already seen what some members of that c ommunity are willing to do when no restrictions are in place.Healthcare spending implications will shut it down. * There would be healthcare spending implications.* Savings to governments could become a consideration. * Drugs for assisted suicide cost about $35 to $45, making them far less expensive than providing medical care. * This could fill the void from cutbacks for treatment and care with the treatment of death. * Social groups would also be at risk.* It must be recognized that assisted suicide and euthanasia will be practiced through the prism of social dissimilitude and prejudice that characterizes the delivery of services in all segments of society, including health care. * Those who will be most vulnerable to abuse, error, or indifference are the poor, minorities, and those who are least educated and least empowered. * This risk does not reflect a judgment that physicians are more prejudiced or influenced by race and class than the rest of society only that they are not exempt from the prejudices manifest in other areas of our collective life.

Characterisation Essay

Main spirit The character that plays the biggest role in the plot of the story. Major character Characters that play a big role in the story. venial character Characters that play a minor role in the story.Round characters Round characters are like real people. They have complex, multi-dimensional personalities. They are capable of maturement and changing. They are often, but not always, major characters.Flat characters They have one-dimensional personalities. They represent or portray one particular characteristic. They are a type, e.g. the prehensile lover, the fool or the grumpy, old man. They are often, but not always, minor characters.Dynamic characters They change as a result of their experiences.Static characters They do not learn from their experiences, and, thus, remain unchanged.How does the author convey character? 1. Telling The narrator tells how the character is, feels, thinks, etc. 2. Showing The character reveals his or her personality through what the character s ays and does. 3. Setting The author might use the setting (time and place) to say something about the character, e.g. about the characters emotions or feelings. 4. Comparison to other characters It might be useful to analyse how the character relate to the other characters in the story, e.g. if there are characters that are in opposition to, or different from, the character in question. 5. Appearance The characters clothes, looks and general appearance can often tell us something about the characters personality.Questions to ask when analysing characters 1. Is the character a main, major or minor character? 2. Is it a round or a flat character? 3. Is it a dynamic or a static character? 4. Does the author reveal the character through showing or telling, or both? 5. What does the way the character speaks reveal about his character? 6. What does his demeanour reveal about his character?7. Is she similar or different from other characters in the story? How does she relate to the other characters? 8. Has the setting shaped the characters personality? 9. Does the setting reflect the characters mood or emotional state?

Development in infancy and toddlerhood

The emergence of infants and toddlers is the focus of Chapters 5 to 7. In these chapters, the various developmental changes that occur during the first ii years of life are highlighted.Chapter 5 discusses the various physical changes that occur during the first two years of life. It stresses that it is during these years that a human being goes through the most rapid developmental changes. Infants and toddlers get on by leaps and bounds as compared to development at the latter stages of the life cycle. Furthermore, the chapter notes that physical development of infants and toddlers vary and are influenced by various factors. Heredity, ethnic background, gender, and societal environment are some of the factors that greatly influence infant and toddler development. The chapter stresses that physical development during infanthood and toddlerhood are the most critical because delays or problems that occur during these stages whitethorn cause the human being to encounter physical disa bilities later on in life.In chapter 6, the focus shifts to cognitive development. Piagets Cognitive-Developmental Theory is highlighted in this chapter. The focus was on the first stage of Piagets theory called the sensorimotor stage since this stage refers to the first two years of life. During this stage, infants and toddlers rely on their senses to develop an understanding of the valet around them. What infants and toddlers see, smell, hear, touch, and taste are what they think. In line with cognitive development, the chapter likewise discusses how infants and toddler process information. Furthermore, Chapter 6 looks at the development of language during the first two years. The three theories of language development are discussed with focus on how infants and toddlers develop their first words and the patterns they use to produce sounds. The various factors that influence cognitive development in infants and toddlers are likewise discussed in this chapter.In Chapter 7, the em otional and social development of infants and toddlers is discussed. Eriksons theory of infant and toddler personality is used as the creation of the chapters discussion. The chapter looks at how infants and toddlers develop their basic emotions and how they respond to the emotions that other people show. The development of temperament and attachment during the first two years are likewise discussed for infants and toddlers are known to be attached to figures that they commonly see. Parents, most especially the mothers, are the figures that infants and toddlers normally form attachments to.

Smart Cards

1. INTRODUCTION un utilize panel is unmatch qualified of the greatest achievements in the world of tuition engineering. Similar in size to to daylights plastic payment handbill, the refreshed observation has a microcentral impact unit or remembrance stop embedded in it that, when coupled with a cogent evidence ratifier, has the subroutineing power to sue some(prenominal) different applications. As an rile-control widget, modishness set off bath be apply to rile legion remotely over the Internet and they coffin nail collapse personal and business information avail up to(p) however to the appropriate characterrs. Smart c altogethering none earmark selective information port top executive, shelter evaluates, dodge and the equal. According to Gemplus (ref. 19), shiny phone identity post-horse game lowlife be categorized into the following . remembrance and microprocessor- Memory sepa estimate simply stock credentials selective informa tion and push aside be debateed as a sm entirely floppy magnetic disc with optional warrantor. A microprocessor measure, on the sepa pose hand, push aside add, delete and manipulate information in its depot on the nonification. Contact and conflict slight Contact stylishness card game be inserted into a chicness card lecturer, making physical contact with the reader. However, contactless pert tease lose an barbel embedded inside the card that enables communication with the reader without physical contact. A combi card combines the two features with a in truth broad(prenominal) direct of gage.Smart cards help businesses evolve and expand their products and lock in a changing global market nates. The scope of functions for a spite card has expanded several(prenominal)ly year to complicate applications in a variety of markets and disciplines. In recent years, the information age has introduced an wander of auspices and hiding issues that check calle d for advanced refreshing card credential applications. Key to the global liquidation,that is how the Smart measure has been described. Smart bill of f argons pass on bring big changes to the way heap leave alone and receive information and the way they spend money. They will conf wont a profound impact on retailing and avail delivery.ASmart government noteis handle an electronic wallet. It is a standard reference card-sized plastic intelligent token wi repress which a micro routine has been embedded within its body and which makes it impertinent. It provides not b bely when holding capacity, but computational skill as well and thus the chip is able-bodied of processing data. It has gold contacts that leave behind former(a) gismos to communicate with it. This chip holds a variety of information, from put ind (monetary) time value apply for retail and vending machines to defineinformationandapplicationsfor higher(prenominal)-end operations such as medical/h ealthc be records.New information and applications trick be added depending on the chip capabilities. Smart accounts corporation store several cytosine times much(prenominal) data than a conventional batting line of battle with amagnetic stripeand go off be programmed to reveal unless the relevant information. For Example, it could tell a device in a store that on that point is sufficient counterpoise in an account to pay for a transaction without revealing the balance amount. The marriage surrounded by a convenient plastic card and a microprocessor allows information to be stored, entreed and bear on either online or offline.Therefore, un kindred the read- solitary(prenominal) plastic card, the processing power of Smart fliers gives them the versatility learned to make payments, to configure your cell phones, TVs and video players and to connect to your reckoners via telephone, satellite or the Internet anytime, anywhere in the world. 2. HISORICAL location Smart card was invented at the end of the seventies by Michel Ugon (Guillou, 1992). The French group of bankcards CB (Carte Bancaire) was created in 1985 and has allowed the dispersal of 24 million devices (Fancher, 1997). For the physical characteristics the first-class honours degree draft proposal was registered in 1983.A long discussion resulted in the standardization of the contact location. Next was the standardization of signals and protocols which resulted in standards ISO/IEC 7816/1-4. Logical credential came next, as it was clear from the ancestry that in that respect was a need for cryptographic capabilities, though this was a bit difficult due to the control computing power and the a few(prenominal) bytes of RAM available at that time (Quisquater, 1997). Nowadays, smart cards atomic number 18 utilise in several applications. The technology has its historical origin in the seventies when inventors in Ger umteen, Japan, and France filed the pass describe patents. Whi le inventors in the U.S. , Japan and Austria, were issued patents, it was the French who put up big money to push the technology. They did this in the 1970s, during a period of study national investment in modernizing the nations technology infrastructure. Due to several factors close work on Smart Cards was at the research and development level until the mid-eighties. Since indeed, the industry has been development at tremendous rate is shipping to a greater extent than one billion (1,000,000,000) cards per year (since 1998). The afoot(predicate) world population of Smart Cards of rough 1. 7 billion is set to increase to 4 billion or more cards within the next 3-4 years.A survey completed by Card Technology Magazine (http//www. cardtechnology. com) indicated that the industry had shipped more than 1. 5 billion smart cards worldwide in 1999. Over the next five years, the industry will experience steady suppuration, particularly in cards and devices to conduct electronic commer ce and to enable inexpugnable access to calculating machine meshings. A study by Dataquest in March, 2000, predicts almost 28 million smart card shipments (microprocessor and memory) in the U. S. According to this study, an annual growth rate of 60% is expected for U. S. smart card shipments amongst 1998 and 2003.Smart Card Forum Consumer Research, published in early 1999, provides additional insights into consumer attitudes towards application and affair of smart cards. The market of smart card is growing chop-chop due to its wide range of applications. The worldwide smart cards market forecast in millions of dollars and billions of units as shown in figure 1 3. CONSTRUCTION OF THE intellectual CARD The main(prenominal) reposition atomic number 18a in such cards is normallyEEPROM (Electrically eradicable Programmable Read-Only Memory),which fire have its content updated, and which retains current contents when impertinent power is re give noticed.Newer Smart Card chips , sometimes, in any case havemath co-processorsintegrated into the microprocessor chip, which is able to perform kinda complex encryption routines relatively quickly. The chip connection is either via direct physical contact or remotely via a contact less electromagnetic interface. Its chip therefore characterizes a Smart Card uniquely with its ability to store much more data(currently up to virtually 32,000 bytes)than is held on amagnetic stripe,all within an highly secure environment.Data residing in the chip batch be shelter against external inspection or alteration, so effectively that the vital individual(a) bring ups of the cryptographic frames used to protect the integrity and privacy of card-related communications provide be held safely against all but the most civilise forms of attack. The functional architecture of a GSM (Global system of mobile communication) system endure be broadly dissever intothe Mobile Station, the Base Station Subsystem, and the Networ k Subsystem. Each subsystem is comprised of functional entities that communicate by dint of the various interfaces exploitation specified protocols.The subscriber carriesthe mobile stationthe base station subsystemcontrols the radio link with the Mobile Station. The network subsystem,the main part of which is the Mobile services Switching Center, performs the switching of calls between the mobile and separate situated or mobile network substance ab drug drug users, as well as management of mobile services, such as stylemark. figure of speech 3. 1. 1 Smart Card Construction. Fig 3. 1. 2 Smart Card Construction. or soly all chip cards are build from layers of differing materials, or substrates, that when brought together befittingly gives the card a item life and functionality.The typical card today is made from PVC, Polyester or Poly carbonate. The card layers are printed first and accordingly laminated in a large press. The next step in construction is the blanking or die cutting. This is followed by embedding a chip and then adding data to the card. In all, there may be up to 30steps in constructing a card. The total components, including package and plastics, may be as many as 12 separate items all this in a unified package that appears to the user as a undecomposable device. 3. 1 Types of smart cardsToday, there are basically three categories of Smart Cards A microprocessor chip fag end add, delete and otherwise manipulate information in its memory. It can be viewed as a miniature computer with an scuttlebutt/output port, operating system and hard disk. Microprocessor chips are available 8, 16, and 32 bit architectures. Their data storage capacity ranges from 300 bytes to 32,000 bytes with larger sizes expected with semiconductor technology advances. 3. 1. 2 Integrated Circuit (IC)Microprocessor Cards Fig 3. 1. 1 An Integrated Circuit used in Smart Cards.Microprocessor cards ( slackly referred to aschip cards) offer greater memory stor age and security of data than a traditional magnetic stripe card. Their chips may likewise be called asmicroprocessors with internal memorywhich, in addition to memory, embody a processor controlled by acard operating system,with the ability to process data onboard, as well as carrying small programs capable of local execution. The microprocessor card can add, delete, and otherwise manipulate information on the card, while a memory-chip card (for example, pre-paid phone cards) can only downstairstake a pre-defined operation.The current generation of chip cards has aneight-bitprocessor, 32KB read-only memory, and 512 bytes of hit-or-miss-access memory. This gives them the equivalent processing power of the bufferIBM-XTcomputer, albeit with slightly less memory capacity. 3. 1. 2. 1. Uses These cards are used for a variety of applications, especially those that have cryptography built in, which bears manipulation of large numbers. Very often the data processing power is used to en crypt/decrypt data, which makes this type of card very unique person realization token.Data processing permits also the dynamic storage management, which enables realization of flexible multifunctional card. therefore, chip cards have been the main computer program for cards that hold a secure digital individuality. Hence they are capable of crack advanced security mechanism, local data processing, complex calculation and other interactive processes. Most stored-value cards integrated with identification, security and information purposes are processor cards. more or less examples of these cards are * Cards that hold money(stored value cards) Card that hold money equivalents (for example,affinity cards) * Cards that provide secure access to a network * Cards that secure cellular phones from fraud * Cards that allow set-top boxes on televisions to take a breather secure from piracy 3. 1. 3 Integrated Circuit (IC)Memory Cards Memory cards can hardly store data and have no da ta processing capabilities. These have amemory chip with non-programmable logic,with storage space for data, and with a reasonable level of built-in security. IC memory cards can hold up to1 4 KBof data, but have no processor on the card with which to manipulate that data.They are less expensive than microprocessor cards but with a identical decrease in data management security. They depend on the security of the card reader for processing and are desirel when security strikements permit use of cards with low to medium security and for uses where the card performs a fixed operation. There is also a special type memory cards called the equip Logic (or Intelligent Memory)cards, which contain also some built-in logic, usually used to control the access to the memory of the card. 3. 1. 3. 1 UsesMemory cards represent the bulk of the Smart Cards sold in the main for pre-paid, disposable-card applications like pre-paid phone cards. These are popular as high-security alternatives to magnetic stripe cards. 3. 1. 4 Optical Memory Cards Optical memory cards visit like a card with a while of a CD glued on top which is basically what they are. Optical memory cards can store up to4 MBof data. Butonce written, the data cannot be changed or removed. 3. 1. 4. 1 Uses Thus, this type of card is ideal for record keeping for example medical files, driving records, or act histories. 3. 1. Fundamentals of Card Operation Todays Smart Cards need galvanising power from outside, plus a way for data to be read from, and sometimes to be transmitted to, the chip. They interact with anaccepting device,usually known as acard reader, which exchanges data with the card and usually involves the electronic change over of money or personal information. The information or application stored in the IC chip is transferred finished an electronic module that interconnects with a terminal or a card reader. There are two general categories of Smart CardsContactandContactlessSmart Cards. Fig 3. 1. 5. 1 Contact Smart Card. ThecontactSmart Card has a set of gold- plated electrical contacts embedded in the surface of the plastic on one side. It is operated by inserting the card (in the correct orientation) into a slot in a card reader, which has electrical contacts that connect to the contacts on the card face thus establishing a direct connection to a semiconductive micro module on the surface of the card. This card has a contact plate on the face, which is a small gold chip about 1/2 in diameter on the front, instead of a magnetic stripe on the back like a credit card.When the card is inserted into a Smart Card reader, it makes contact with an electrical connector for reads and compiles to and from the chip it is via these physical contact supermans, that transmission of commands, data, and card status takes place. Such a card is traditionally used at the retail point of sale or in the banking environment or as the GSM SIM card in the mobile phone. Fig 3. 1. 5. 2 Contactless Smart Card (This diagram shows the top and bottom card layers which sandwich the antenna/chip module. ) AcontactlessSmart Card looks just like a plastic credit card with a computer chip and an antenna coil embedded within the card.This antenna allows it to communicate with an external antenna at the transaction point to transfer information. The antenna is typically 3 5 turns of very thin wire (or conductive ink), connected to the contactless chip. This aerial coil of the antenna is laminated into the card and allows communication even whilst the card is retained within a wallet or handbag. The same activation method applies to watches, pendants, baggage tags and buttons. Thus no electrical contacts are needed and it is therefore called as contactless.Such Smart Cards are used when transactions must(prenominal) be refined quickly, as in mass- cross bell collection or wheresoever the cardholder is in motion at the moment of the transaction. Close proximity, typicall y two to three inches for non-battery powered cards (i. e. an air-gap of up to 10cms) is required for such transactions, which can decrease transaction time while increasing convenience as both the reader and the card have antenna and it is via this contactless link that the two communicate. Most contactless cards also derive the internal chip power source from this electromagnetic signal.Radio frequency technology is used to transmit power from the reader to the card. Two untried categories, derivedfrom the contact and contactless cards arecombicards and hybridizationcards. AhybridSmart Card hastwo chips, individually with its respective contact and contactless interface. The two chips are not connected, but for many applications, this Hybrid serves the need of consumers and card issuers. Fig 3. 1. 5. 3 Combi Card (This shows both the contact and contactless elements of the card. ) Thecombicard (also known as thedual-interfacecard)is a card with both contact and contactless inter faces.With such a card, it becomes doable to access the same chip via a contact or contactless interface, with a very high level of security. It may incorporate two non-communicating chips one for each interface but preferably has a bingle, dual-interface chip providing the many advantages of a single e-purse, single operating architecture, and so forth The mass expatriation and banking industries are expected to be the first to take advantage of this technology. 4. SMART CARD APPLICATION The self-containment of Smart Card makes it resistant to attack, as it does not need to depend upon potentially vulnerable external resources.Because of the security and data storage features, Smart Cards are rapidly world embraced as the consumer token of choice in many areas of the public sector and commercial worlds and are often used in different applications, which require strong security safeguard and enfranchisement. Many of the applications of Smart Cards require sensitive data to b e stored in the card, such as biometrics information of the card possessor, personal medical history, and cryptographic happen upons for hallmark, etc. Smart Cards are being deployed in most sectors of the public and esoteric marketplaces.Here are somepopular application areas whereSmart Cards are being used in todays world * Loyalty * Financial * Information Technology * Government * Healthcare * Telephony * Mass track * denomination on Internet 4. 1 roughly of the study applications of the Smart Cards, as seen around the world, are * There are over 300,000,000 GSM mobile telephones with Smart Cards, which contain the mobile phone security and subscription information. The handset is personalized to the individual by inserting the card, which contains its phone number on the network, billing information, and frequently call numbers. different countries with national health care programs have deployed Smart Card systems. The largest is the German solution which deployed ove r 80,000,000 cards to every person in Germany and Austria. * There are over 100 countries worldwide who have lessen or eliminated coins from the pay phone system by issuing Smart Cards. Germany, France, UK, Brazil, Mexico, and China have major(ip) programs. * Almost every small dish TV satellite receiver uses a Smart Card as its removable security element and subscription information. They are used as a credit/ calculate bankcard, which allows them for off-line transactions and store the credit and debit functions of financial institutions. * They can be used in retail loyalty schemes and corporate staff systems. Other applications for Smart Cards include computer/ meshwork user trademark and non-repudiation, retailer loyalty programs, physical access, resort cards, mass transit mass transit slatinging schemes, electronic toll, product tracking, national ID, drivers license, pass ports, and the list goes on. . 2 Automating Transportation work With billions of transport transacti ons occurring each day, Smart Cards have easily found a place in this rapidly growing market. A few of the numerous examples of Smart Cards in transportation are * Mass Transit Ticketing Using contactless Smart Cards allows a passenger to ride several buses and trains during his daily commute to work while not having to worry about complex fare structures or carrying change. * Urban Parking You dont need to carry the correct change anymore ust a prepaid contact Smart Card. * Electronic Toll Collection As you drive through the toll gate of a bridge, a Smart Card, inserted into an RF transponder within your car, electronically pays the toll without you ever fillet * Airline Application Your frequent flyer miles are added onto your airline Smart Card as your ticket is removed from it at the gate, eliminating paperwork 4. 3 Internet The role of the Internet has developed to include the support of electronic commerce. It was designed for the free exchange of information, and as such, t is a rich supply of academic, product and service information. But how does an Internet shopper go from looking at the product to actually depraveing it? The Smart Card is the ideal support for payment over the Internet, whether in cash or as credit. However, the Internet shopper needs to connect his smart payment card to his computer and through the computer to the Internet. Smart Card readers are inexpensive, low-power devices which can be easily added to existing computers. The additional damage of build them into future computers or peripherals is extremely low.The Internet is foc exploitation the need for online identification and stylemark between parties who cannot otherwise know or commit each other, and Smart Cards are conceptualised to be the most efficient way of enabling the new world of e-trade. Smart Cards can act as an identification card, which is used to prove the identity of the cardholder. Besides using Smart Cards for payment over the Internet, the possibil ities are endless likecarrying your favorite addresses from your own personal computer to your friends Network Computer and downloading your airline ticket and embarkation passes, telepayments of the goods purchased online and such others. . SMART CARD TERMS AND CONCEPTS 5. 1 Memory Management Smart card is a device with major hardware constraints low-power CPU, low data rate serial I/O, little memory etc. Today, card technology utilizes 8 bit processors (mainly of the 6805 or 8051 family) whose memory sizes are about a few tens of kilobytes (Urien, 2000), typically 1-4 kb RAM (Random Access Memory), 32-128 kb ROM (Read Only memory) and 32-64 kb EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) at least, with options on FLASH and FRAM (Ferroelectric Random Access Memory) as well.As the demand for smart cards matures the standard memory of 32 or 64 Kbytes can prove a overserious limitation. A solution to this is to look at some of the design issues and techniques to in corporate multiple memory chips in a single smart card. Gemplus had already produced a twin card, incorporating two unconnected chips in a single card. Other come outes include the use of PC in conjunction with smartcard. For instance, Blaze (1996) intimates the use of a powerful PC with a smart card for symmetric mention encryption because the PC provides higher encryption bandwidth.Table 1 below shows storage capacity needed for various communication rates. Communication rate Storage capacity P C (Pentium IV) 120 Mbps 10 K Bytes Standard smart card 9600 bps 64 K Bytes Multiple chip card 20 Mbps 224 M Bytes Table 5. 1. 1 Communication rate and storage capacity According to Junko (2002), the EEPROM used in current smart cards is reaching its scalability limits, particularly for smart card devices built in 0. 13-micron technology and beyond. For this reason, companies like Philips agree on the need for alternative non-volatile memory for future smart cards.Currently Philips is leaning toward magnetic RAM as an alternative to EEPROM. Another measurable application that requires memory management is the application of biometrics. The use of biometrics within the card itself will mean that biometric features ( fingerprint, retina, congresswoman etc) can reliably identify a person. With enhancement in memory system, it will soon be possible to authorize the use of electronic information in smart card using a spoken word. The use of some of these features has already been implemented in many applications. Malaysias national ID, for instance, is a multipurpose smart card with a fingerprint biometric.The card is first of its kind in the world as it combines many applications such as driving license, passport, healthcare, and non-government applications such as an e-purse. (See http//www. jpn. gov. my/ or www. iris. com. my for details). Table 2 below gives the required bytes for various biometrics. Additional information about biometric technology and stand ards can be found from the following faces The Biometric puddle (www. biometrics. org), International Biometric Industry Association (www. ibia. rg), or Bio API family (www. iapi com) Biometric Bytes needfulFinger scan 300-1200 Finger geometry 14 Hand geometry 9 Iris recognition 512 juncture verification 1500 Face recognition 500-1000 Signature verification 500-1000 Retina recognition 96 Table 5. 1. 2 Required Bytes for Biometrics 5. 2 warrantor Issues Security is always a big concern for smart cards applications. This naturally gives rise to the need for reliable, efficient cryptographic algorithms. We need to be able to provide authentication and identification in online-systems such as bank machine and computer networks, access control and the like.Currently such facilities allow access using a token however, it is vital that the holder of the token be the true owner or user of the token. As smart card is handicapped or highly qualified in their input/output (unable to int eract with the world without outside peripherals), this leads to the involvement of many parties in its applications. Some of the parties involve Cardholder, Data Owner, Card Issuer, Card Manufacturer, Software Manufacturer, and Terminal Owner as mentioned in (Schneier, 1999).It is there for essential to image that none of the above mentioned parties is threat to one another. To achieve this, there is need for bring forward investigation in the design and analysis of smart card authentication and identification protocols. For this reason, Gobioff (1996) proposes that smart cards be equipped with additional I/O channels such as buttons to alleviate these shortcomings. Further, there are numerous intrusion techniques able to tamper with smart cards and other similar temper-resistant devices as presented in (Anderson, 1997).This also indicates the need for effective intrusion detection/prevention techniques. 5. 3 Open computer architecture Existing smart card standards leave vendors too much room for interpretation. To achieve wider murder, there is need for an contribute standard that provides for inter-operable smart cards solutions across many hardware and software platforms. Open Platform, as defined by Global Platform (www. GlobalPlatform. org) is a comprehensive system architecture that enables the fast and user-friendly development of globally interoperable smart card systems.It comprises three elements card, terminal and systems, each of which may include specifications, software and/or chip card technology. Together these components define a secure, flexible, easy to use smart card environment. Development environment in use today include Java, Visual C, Visual Basic, C++, and the like. The development of standards like GSM, EMV, CEPS, PC/SC, OCF, ITSO and IATA 791 represents an opportunity for manufacturers to produce products on an economic scale and give constancy to systems designers. According to a report by Data card Group (White paper versio n1. ), True idle smart cards will have the following characteristics * They will run a non-proprietary operating system widely implemented and supported. * No single vendor will specify the standards for the operating system and the cards use. * The cards will support a high-level application programming language (e. g. , Java, C++) so issuers can supply and support their own applications as well as applications from many other vendors. * Applications can be written and will operate on different vendors multi-application smart cards with the same API (Application Programming Interface).To overcome the problem of lack of standardization, U. S. organizations have developed an add-on moment of smart card software meant to overcome communication problems between chip cards and readers from different vendors. They would like to see this technology, which they call a card capabilities container, used worldwide, making it an industry standard that would allow U. S. agencies to buy cards and readers from many vendors, sure that they would work together (Cathy, 2002).Another move is the development of a new organization called Smart Card Alliance, formed by Smart Card Industry Association (SCIA) and Smart Card Forum (SCF) to act as a single voice for the US smart card industries. heretofore in biometrics, each vendor has its own methods for enrolling individuals and later checking someones identity against the stored image. However, there are efforts lowway to create biometric standards, largely driven by the U. S. government. In a major step, the American work Standards Institute approved Bio API as a standard way for biometric devices to exchange data with ID applications.ANSI now is preparing to propose Bio API to ISO for adoption as an international standard (Donald, 2002). 5. 3. 1 Operating Systems Todays smart card operating systems and application frameworks are intrinsically local and mono application. Moreover, smartcard communicates with the outside wo rld through a serial link. As the chip has a single bi-directional I/O pin, this link can only support haft-duplex protocol. The majority of chips work at the speed of 9600 baud, although the ISO standard 7816 has defined a maximum data rate of 230400 baud.A new type of SPOM (Self-Programmable One-Chip Microcomputer), named ISO/USB has been introduced in 1999 it provides a direct connection between a SPOM and the terminal via an USB port (Urien, 2000). According to USB specification, a data throughput from 1. 2 to 12 Mbits/s may be obtained between the chip and the terminal. The vision of smart card as an application platform rather than a simple security token is a paradigm shift for smartcard operating systems.According to Jurgensen (2002), the current operating system ensample cannot completely support the needs or the vision of Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC). The move is now towards the development of Next Generation Smart Card Operating Systems (COSng), which will be able to handle multi-applications and support future requirements. 5. 4 Performance Performance and speed are very primary(prenominal) factors that need to be considered in most smart card application.To achieve this, transistor scaling or the reduction of the gate length (the size of the switch that turns transistors on and off), must be taken into consideration. This idea not only improves the performances of chips but also lowers their manufacturing cost and power consumption per switching event. Recently, IBM have built a working transistor at 6 nano meters in length which is per beyond the projection of The Consortium of International Semiconductor Companies that transistors have to be smaller than 9 nano meters by 2016 in value to move on the performance trend.The ability to build working transistors at these dimensions could allow developers to put 100 times more transistors into a computer chip than is currently possible. The IBM results will lead to further research int o small, high-density silicon devices and allow scientists to introduce new structures and new materials. Details are available from IBM Research News 9thDecember 2002, available online http//www. research. ibm. com/. 5. 5 Reader Requirements As the needs and uses of smart card increases, the need for a Smart Card reader that is not portable, small or light, but also easy to connect and access has arrived.However, some developers like Browns (http//www. brownsbox. com/) believe that the need for a reader is a problem, substance extra expenditure, and, when working with a laptop, is a waste of a port. In view of this, an approach toward a device that can be abandoned to a PC (internally or externally) has arrived. To solve this problem, Browns developed a method that turns a floppy disk drive into a smart card reader. Another popular approach in Europe is the smarty smartcard reader/writer the size of a 3. 5-inch diskette by Smart Disk Corp.The device does not require a serial, par allel, or USB port, instead it works directly from a diskette drive. Smarty supports all smart card a protocol, including ISO 7816 and it works infra different operating systems. Details are available from http//www. smartcomputing. com/. This idea of smart diskette was initially proposed by Paul (1989) as shown in figure 3. A similar approach involves the development of depictboard with integrated card reader, and/or let outboard with integrated fingerprint sensor and card reader by Cherry(http//www. access headstoneboards. co. uk/cherry. tm). 5. 6 Portability As mentioned earlier, portability or convenience of handling is one of the most important characteristics of smart cards. Since the smartness of smart card relies on the integrated circuit embedded in the plastic card, it is possible that the future smart cards might look like other everyday objects such as rings, watches, openhandedges, glasses or earring because that same electronic function could be performed by embedd ing it in these objects. What remain is for developers and researchers to look into the best way of implementing it if the need arises. 6.SMART CARD VS BIOMETRIC One of the primary reasons that smart cards exist is for security. The card itself provides a computing platform on which information can be stored hard and computations can be performed steadfastly. Consequently, the smart card is ideally suited to function as a token through which the security of other systems can be enhanced. Most of todays systems need proper user authentication/identification as it is a crucial part of the access control that makes the major building pile of any systems security. Three methods are currently in use what the user has (e. . smart card), what the user knows (e. g. password), and what the user is (biometrics). Each of these methods has its own merits and demerits especially when used alone. When a single method is used, we believe smartcard is the best choice. Passwords can easily be for gotten, attacked, and guessed. Similarly, biometric schemes alone are not good enough to ensure user authentication, as they are also vulnerable to attacks. First, we look into some of the benefits in using biometric schemes and then analyze some of their limitations.The primary advantage of biometric authentication methods over other methods of user authentication is that they use real human physiological or behavioral characteristics to authenticate users. These biometric characteristics are (more or less) permanent and not changeable. It is also not easy (although in some cases not principally impossible) to change ones fingerprint, iris or other biometric characteristics. Further, most biometric techniques are based on something that cannot be lost or forgotten.This is an advantage for users as well as for system administrators because the problems and costs associated with lost, reissued or temporarily issued tokens/cards/passwords can be avoided, thus saving some costs of the system management. However, as reported in (Luca 2002), the major risk posed by the use of biometric systems in an authentication process is that a malicious composition may interfere with the communication and intercept the biometric template and use it later to obtain access. Likewise, an attack may be committed by generating a template from a fingerprint obtained from some surface.Further, performance of biometric systems is not ideal. Biometric systems still need to be improved in terms of accuracy and speed. Biometric systems with the false rejection rate under 1% (together with a reasonably low false acceptance rate) are still rare today. Although few biometric systems are fast and accurate (in terms of low false acceptance rate) enough to allow identification (automatically recognizing the user identity), most of current systems are suitable for the verification only, as the false acceptance rate is too high. Moreover, not all users can use any given biometric system.People without hands cannot use fingerprint or hand-based systems. Visually impaired people have difficulties using iris or retina based techniques. Some biometric sensors (particularly those having contact with users) also have a limited lifetime. While a magnetic card reader may be used for years (or even decades), the optical fingerprint reader (if heavily used) must be regularly cleaned and even then the lifetime need not exceed one year. Biometric data are not considered to be secret and security of a biometric system cannot be based on the secrecy of users biometric characteristics.The server cannot authenticate the user just after receiving his/her correct biometric characteristics. The user authentication can be successful only when users characteristics are fresh and have been collected from the user being authenticated. This implies that the biometric input device must be trusted. Its authenticity should be confirm (unless the device and the link are physically secure) and users likeness would be checked. The input device also should be under human supervision or tamper-resistant. The fact hat biometric characteristics are not secret brings some issues that traditional authentication systems need not deal with. Many of the current biometric systems are not aware of this fact and therefore the security level they offer is limited. Users privacy may be violated by biometric schemes. Biometric characteristics are sensitive data that may contain a lot of personal information. The DNA (being the typical example) contains (among others) the users preposition to diseases. This may be a very interesting order of information for an insurance company.The body odour can provide information about users recent activities. It is also mentioned in (Jain, 1999) that people with asymmetric fingerprints are more presumable to be homosexually oriented, etc. Use of biometric systems may also imply loss of anonymity. While one can have multiple identities when authentication methods are based on something the user knows or has, biometric systems can sometimes link all user actions to a single identity. Furthermore, biometric systems can potentially be quite troublesome for some users. These users find some biometric systems intrusive or personally invasive.In some countries people do not like to touch something that has already been touched many times (e. g. , biometric sensor), while in some countries people do not like to be photographed or their faces are completely covered. Lack of standards may also poses a serious problem. Two similar biometric systems from two different vendors are not likely to interoperate at present. Although good for user authentication, biometrics cannot be used to authenticate computers or messages. Biometric characteristics are not secret and therefore they cannot be used to sign messages or encrypt documents and the like.On the other hand, smart cards provide tamper- resistant storage for protecting toffee-nosed keys, a ccount numbers, passwords, and other forms of personal information. Smart cards can also serve to isolate security-critical computations involving authentication, digital key signatures, and key exchange from other parts of the system that do not have a need to know. In addition, smart cards provide a level of portability for securely moving private information between systems at work, home, or on the road. A let out approach for the usage of biometrics is to combine biometrics with smartcards.The advantages of this may include all attributes of the smartcards will be maintained, counterfeiting attempts are reduced due to enrolment process that verifies identity and captures biometrics. It will be extremely secure and provide excellent user-to-card authentication. 7. THREATS TCG does not really address security from a user point of view as the sample is centered on platforms. User identification and authentication mechanisms, including owner, are rather rudimentary. Basically, p roof of knowledge of a secret value shared between the owner and the TPM is proof of ownership.In the case of the owner proof of knowledge is even proof of identity. To some extent, the pair (object UUID, Authorization Data) corresponds to a capability associated to a TPM-saved object. Threats are actually similar to those applying to capability-basedmodels. For example, the access ascendance to a TPM-protected object is given very early, when the ascendancy data is associated to the object and not when the access is attempted. But more important authentication data can be freely duplicated and the user has to find some way to protect them.Like for every sensitive piece of information the key issue with control data is storage protection. Because it is impossible for an operator to remember a 20-byte random value, most of the TPM administration products available today implement a simple password-based technique. The authentication data Auth Data is computed from a password value using SHA-1 hash algorithm. Auth Data= SHA( password)Of course, all the well-known weaknesses of password-based authentication apply to such a mechanism One-factor only authentication, Easy to guess, subject to dictionary attacks, Easy to snoop, unmistakable in the clear when keyed or transmitted to the verifying party, Easy to lose and forget, Easy to write down and to share with others This type of implementation is so common that TPM manufacturers had to implement countermeasures like lockout or reception degradation in order to protect from dictionary types of attacks. Another natural solution would be to securely store the authorization data directly on the platform hard drive. This type of solution is considered subject to attacks 9 and raises a lot of side issues.For example, the authorization data must be stored on an opaque container that is generally protected by a password and hence prone to dictionary attacks. Outside of the platform owner, who just plays an admin istrative role, regular platform users have also to be taken into account. In every day operations, platforms interact with users and user identity is a critical piece of the security and trust puzzle. For that matter all platform operating systems implement user identification and authentication mechanisms.How users fit in this picture is not completely in the scope of TCG specification. As a consequence, authentication data are not depute to specific users. pull down though this is not a threat in itself, there is lot of interoperable cases where TPM-protected keys have to be assigned to specific users only. For example, the file encryption keys used by one user on a platform must be kept separated from the other platform users. 8. SMART CARD-BASED USER AUTHENTICATION Smart card-based authentication is a first step towards the TPM and-smartcard cooperative model introduced in section 2.The principle is to use a smart card during the execution of the user side of the TCG authori zation protocols. The most critical piece of information in TCG authorization protocol is the Authorization Data that is either stored locally on the platform or computed from an external seed secret such as password. This model raises many issues. Since smart cards another hardware tokens, are used to address this type of user authentication issues in environments like corporate IT or banking, smart card-based authentication can be the dissolving agent to the threats identified in section 3. 4.For instance, as smart cards are physically secure and cannot beckoned, the gemination of an authorization data becomes impossible. Likewise, smart cards allow the usage of truly random authorization data, offering a particularly efficient protection against a dictionary attack. To offer a higher protection level, access to the authorization data can be protected by a Personal Identification Number (PIN). In the context of user authentication, smart cards will also provide Two-factor authe ntication, Tamper-resistant storage for protecting authentication data and other user personal information. Isolation of security-critical computations involving the authentication data from other parts of the system that do not have a need to know. Portability of security and other private information between computers. But the integration of smart cards within TCG authorization protocols has an impact in terms of smart cards capabilities. 8. 1 Smart cards requirements In a smart card-based authentication scheme, the smart card will be primarily used to physically protect the Authorization Data. This doer that the smart card must be able to 1.Store the Authorization Data, 2. Process the user side of the authorization protocol computation that requires the Authorization Data. Storing the Authorization Data in a smart card presents no particular difficulty. Every smart card, including the most basic one like simple memory card, has the capability to store a 20-bytevalue. On anot her hand, how much of the authorization protocol can be processed by a smart card is directly linked with the card cryptographic capabilities. In order to perform the entire user side of the protocol a smart card will have to be able to Generate random values, Compute a shared secret using a SHA-1-based HMAC, Compute and verify authentication values using SHA-1 andSHA-1-based HMAC operations, Encrypt authentication data using a XOR Most of cryptographic smart cards today have robust Random Number root and support SHA-1 in native mode, but smartcards offering HMAC in native mode are less common. A solutions to simply implement a Java Card applet providing these features. Following sections describe three, incrementally secure, possible implementation of smart card-based authentication. . 2 Importance of Smartcards to Computer Security 8. 2. 1 Importance of Smartcards as a end Mechanism for Computer Networks This section highlights the fundamental security challenges that face us in this increasingly computer network oriented world, and how smartcards can provide key advantages towards security. 8. 2. 2 Fundamental Security Challenges Because computers and networks are meet so central to our lives in this digital age, many new security challenges are arising. This is the era of near connectivity, both electronically and physically.Smartcards can facilitate this connectivity and other value added capabilities, while providing the necessary security assurances not available through other means. On the Internet, smartcards increase the security of the building blocks Authentication, Authorization, Privacy, Integrity, and Non-Repudiation. Primarily, this is because the private signing key never leaves the smartcard so its very difficult to gain knowledge of the private key through a compromise of the host computer system. In a corporate enterprise system, multiple baffled systems often have their security based on different technologies.Smartcards can bring these together by storing multiple certificates and passwords on the same card. Secure email and Intranet access, dial-up network access, encrypted files, digitally signed web forms, and building access are all improved by the smartcard. In an Extranet situation, where one company would like to administer security to business partners and suppliers, smartcards can be distributed which allow access to reliable corporate resources. The smartcards splendor in this situation is evident because of the need for the strongest security possible when permitting anyone through the corporate firewall and proxy defenses.When distributing credentials by smartcard, a company can have a higher assurance that those credentials cannot be shared, copied, or otherwise compromised. 8. 2. 3 The Smartcard Security Advantage Some reasons why smartcards can enhance the security of modern day systems are 8. 2. 3. 1 PKI is better than passwords smartcards enhance PKI Public Key Infrastructure systems ar e more secure than password based systems because there is no shared knowledge of the secret. The private key need only be known in one place, rather than two or more.If the one place is on a smartcard, and the private key never leaves the smartcard, the crucial secret for the system is never in a situation where it is easily compromised. A smartcard allows for the private key to be usable and yet never appear on network or in the host computer system. 8. 2. 3. 2 Smartcards enlarge the Security of Password Based Systems Though smartcards have obvious advantages for PKI systems, they can also increase the security of password based systems. One of the biggest problems in typical password systems is that users write down their password and obligate it to their monitor or keyboard.They also tend to choose weak passwords and share their passwords with other people. If a smartcard issued to store a users multiple passwords, they need only remember the PIN to the smartcard in order to a ccess all of the passwords. Additionally, if a security officer initializes the smartcard, very strong passwords can be elect and stored on the smartcard. The end user need never even know the passwords, so that they cant be written down or shared with others. 8. 2. 3. 3 Two Factor Authentication, and more Security systems benefit from multiple factor authentications.Commonly used factors are Something you know, something you have, something you are, and something you do. Password based systems typically use only the first factor, something you know. Smartcards add an additional factor, something you have. Two factor authentications have proven to be much more effective than single because the Something you know factor is so easily compromised or shared. Smartcards can also be enhanced to include the remaining two features. Prototype designs are available which accept a thumbprint on the surface of the card in addition to the PIN in order to unlock the services of the card.Alternati vely, thumbprint template, retina template, or other biometric information can be stored on the card, only to be checked against data obtained from a separate biometric input device. Similarly, something you do such as typing patterns, handwritten signature characteristics, or voice inflection templates can be stored on the card and be matched against data accepted from external input devices. 8. 2. 3. 4 Portability of Keys and Certificates Public key certificates and private keys can be utilized by web browsers and other popular software packages but they in some sense identify the workstation rather than the user.The key and certificate data is stored in a proprietary browser storage area and must be merchandise/imported in order to be moved from one workstation to another. With smartcards the certificate and private key are portable, and can be used on multiple workstations, whether they are at work, at home, or on the road. If the lower level software layers support it, they ca n be used by different software programs from different vendors, on different platforms, such as Windows, UNIX, and Mac. 8. 2. 3. 5 Auto-disabling PINs Versus Dictionary AttacksIf a private key is stored in a browser storage file on a hard drive, it is typically protected by password. This file can be dictionary attacked where commonly used passwords are attempted in a brute force manner until knowledge of the private key is obtained. On the other hand, a smartcard will typically lock itself up after some low number of consecutive bad PIN attempts, for example 10. Thus, the dictionary attack is no longer a feasible way to access the private key if it has been securely stored on a smartcard. 8. 2. 3. 6 Non RepudiationThe ability to deny, after the fact, that your private key performed a digital signature is called repudiation. If, however, your private signing key exists only on a single smartcard and only you know the PIN to that smartcard, it is very difficult for others to imperso nate your digital signature by using your private key. Many digital signature systems require hardware strength on Repudiation, meaning that the private key is always protected within the security moulding of hardware token and cant be used without the knowledge of the proper PIN.Smartcards can provide hardware strength Non Repudiation. 8. 2. 3. 7 Counting the Number of Private Key Usages So many of the important things in our lives are pass by our handwritten signature. Smartcard based digital signatures provide benefits over handwritten signatures because they are much more difficult to forge and they can enforce the integrity of the document through technologies such as hashing. Also, because the signature is based in a device that is actually a computer, many new benefits can be conceived of.For example, a smartcard could count the number of times that your private key was used, thus giving you an accurate measure of how many times you utilized your digital signature over a gi ven period of time. skeletal system 8. 2. 3. 7. 1 Smartcard Electrical Contacts Table 8. 2. 3. 7. 2 Description of Contacts POSITION TECHNICAL ABBREVIATION FUNCTION C1 VCC supply Voltage C2 RST Reset C3 CLK Clock Frequency C4 RFU Reserved for future use C5 GND Ground C6 VPP External programming voltage C7 I/O Serial input/output communications C8 RFU Reserved for future use 9.SMART CARD ENABLED PRODUCTS This section lists popular security products and explains how smartcards can be used to enhance their security. 9. 1 net Browsers (SSL, TLS) Web browsers use technology such as Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS) to provide security while browsing the World Wide Web. These technologies can authenticate the client and/or server to each other and also provide an encrypted channel for any message traffic or file transfer. The authentication is enhanced because the private key is stored securely on the smartcard.The encrypted channel typically uses a symmetri c count where the encryption is performed in the host computer because of the low data transfer speeds to and from the smartcard. Nonetheless, the randomly generated session key that is used for symmetric encryption is wrapped with the partners public key, meaning that it can only be unwrapped on the smartcard. Thus it is very difficult for an eavesdropper to gain knowledge of the session key and message traffic. 9. 2 Secure Email (S/MIME, Open PGP) S/MIME and Open PGP allow for email to be encrypted and/or digitally signed.As with SSL, smartcards enhance the security of these operations by protecting the secrecy of the private key and also unwrapping session keys within a security perimeter. 9. 3 Form Signing Web based HTML forms can be digitally signed by your private key. This could prove to be a very important technology for internet based business because it allows for digital documents to be hosted by web servers and accessed by web browsers in a paperless fashion. Online exp ense reports, W-4 forms, purchase requests, and group insurance forms are some examples.For form signing, smartcards provide portability of the private key and certificate as well as hardware strength non repudiation. 9. 4Object Signing If an organization writes code that can be downloaded over the web and then punish onclient computers, it is best to sign that code so the clients can be sure it indeed came from areputable source. Smartcards can be used by the signing organization so the private key cantbe compromised by a rogue organization in order to impersonate the valid one. 9. 5 Kiosk / Portable PreferencesCertain applications operate best in a kiosk mode where one computer is shared by a number of users but becomes configured to their preferences when they insert their smartcard. The station can then be used for secure email, web browsing, etc. and the private key would never leave the smartcard into the environment of the kiosk computer. The kiosk can even be configured to accept no mouse or keyboard input until an authorized user inserts the proper smartcard and supplies the proper PIN. 9. 6 File EncryptionEven though the 9600 baud serial interface of the smartcard usually prevents it from being a convenient mechanism for bulk file encryption, it can enhance the security of this function. If a different, random session key is used for each file to be encrypted, the bulk encryption can be performed in the host computer system at fast speeds and the session key can then be wrapped by the smartcard. Then, the only way to easily decrypt the file is by possessing the proper smartcard and submitting the proper PIN so that the session key can be unwrapped. 9. 7 Workstation LogonLogon credentials can be securely stored on a smartcard. The normal login mechanism of the workstation, which usually prompts for a username and password, can be replaced with one that communicates to the smartcard. 9. 8 Dialup Access (RAS, PPTP, RADIUS, TACACS) Many of the common re mote access dial-up protocols use passwords as their security mechanism. As previously discussed, smartcards enhance the security of passwords. Also, as many of these protocols evolve to support public key based systems, smartcards can be used to increase the security and portability of the private key and certificate. . 9 retribution Protocols (SET) The Secure Electronic Transactions (SET) protocol allows for credit card data to be transferred securely between customer, merchant, and issuer. Because SET relies on public key technology, smartcards are a good choice for storage of the certificate and private key. 9. 10 Digital Cash Smartcards can implement protocols whereby digital cash can be carried around on smartcard. In these systems, the underlying keys that secure the architecture never leave the security perimeter of hardware devices.Mondex, VisaCash, EMV ( Europay-Mastercard-Visa), and Proton are examples of digital cash protocols designed for use with smartcards. 9. 11 Bui lding Access Even though the insertion, processing time, and removal of a standard smartcard could be a hassle when entering a building, magnetic stripe or proximity chip technology can be added to smartcards so that a single token provides computer security and physical access. 10. PROBLEM WITH SMART CARD Even though smartcards provide many obvious benefits to computer security, they still havent caught on with great popularity in countries like the United States.This is not only because of the prevalence, infrastructure, and acceptability of magnetic stripe cards, but also because of a few problems associated with smartcards. Lack of a standard infrastructure for smartcard reader/writers is often cited as a complaint. The major computer manufactures havent until very recently given much thought to offering a smartcard reader as a standard component. Many companies dont want to absorb the cost of outfitting computers with smartcard readers until the economies of scale drive down th eir cost.In the meantime, many vendors provide bundled solutions to outfit any personal computer with smartcard capabilities. Lack of widely adopted smartcard standards is often cited as a complaint. The number of smartcard related standards is high and many of them address only a certain vertical market or only a certain layer of communications. This problem is lessening recently as web browsers and other mainstream applications are including smartcards as an option. Applications like these are helping to speed up the evolution of standards. 11.FUTURE WORK Different usage scenario can be defined to explore additional synergies between TPM and smart cards. For example, a MIS department orders trusted platforms from their favorite PC manufacturer. The machines are configured and personalized according to the end-user profile, following the corporate policies. The MIS representatives possess a specific smart card, the owner card, which is used for trusted platforms initialization and maintenance. During the initialization process the user smart card is created for the platform end-user.This card stores the user secrets and credentials, to be used during the processing of security functions like digital signature of documents. Our scenario provides features to securely share the TPM among several users. Each user owns a dedicated Protected Storage Tree under the Storage Root Key (SRK), protected by local User Root Keys (URK). The first kind in the trusted platform life cycle will be the initialization of the TPM. During this step, the corporation, through the MIS department, will take ownership of the TPM.This phase covers the loading of secrets into the TPM, the creation of a root storage key, but also the generation of a smart card that will be given to the main platform user. During this process a URK can be created for the first user, secured by the SRK, and then user keys can be generated under the URK. These keys will be used to generate quotes for a given user. The platform is then given to the main end-user, who also receives a user smart card. 12. CONCLUSION Most of the smart card systems in use today serve one purpose and are related to just one process or is hardwired to only one application.A smart card cannot justify its existence in this respect. The approach of future smart card is therefore towards designing multi-application card with own operating system based on open standard that can perform a variety of functions. It must be configurable and programmable and it must be able to adapt to new situations and new requirements especially in areas such as security, memory management, and operating system. Most of smart card application methods today rely on the fact that the code of functions to be performed should be imported by card operating system from an outside server.This approach is quite weak with regards to security. It is, therefore, important t